Chemistries of Chemical Warfare Agents
Brian J. Lukey, James A. Romano, Salem Harry in Chemical Warfare Agents, 2019
General Remarks: In 1914, the German chemist Fritz Haber proposed the use of chlorine gas against Allied troops to the German High Command in direct contravention of the international agreement prohibiting the use of poisonous weapons known as the Hague Convention of 1907. Haber worked to weaponize the gas shortly thereafter, and on April 22, 1915, he supervised the use of the gas by German troops against French and Algerian forces on the Western front near Ypres, Belgium. On September 25, 1915, the British used chlorine gas against German soldiers in Loos, France. During World War I, neat chlorine, which was also referred to as Red Star, was used as a general choking agent. Chlorine was also mixed with 20% sulfur chloride (SCl2 or S2Cl2) and used for a relatively short period under the name Blue Star, and a mixture of 50% chlorine and 50% phosgene was referred to as White Star (Richter, 1992). Because it is very reactive, chlorine does not occur in nature as Cl2. It normally is produced from compounds that are relatively rich in chlorine, such as sodium chloride. Manufactured today in large quantities for commercial applications, chlorine is now among the top 10 chemicals produced in the United States and considered to be a toxic industrial chemical.
Cyclospora cayetanensis: Portrait of an Intriguing and Enigmatic Protistan Parasite
Dongyou Liu in Handbook of Foodborne Diseases, 2018
With regard to food, raw vegetables and fruits dipped in sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC) solution revealed statistically significant reductions in the viability and infectivity of parasites including Cyclospora [246]. Chlorine as sodium hypochlorite is the most widely used disinfectant by industrial producers of fresh produce, because it is relatively inexpensive and easy to use. However, its effectiveness against protozoa is limited, because the concentration commonly used (80–100 mg/L) is too low to remove them. An increase in the concentration of chlorine used for washing is not recommended, because it could cause chemical contamination, unpleasant odor and the appearance of harmful compounds in the final product [247]. Chlorine dioxide is more effective at inactivating protists than sodium hypochlorite, but it is 5–10 times more expensive, and is also dangerous for the operators compared with sodium hypochlorite. Ozone treatment is a much more effective disinfectant than chlorination, but is not widely used solution in the food industry because ozone is unstable and dangerous for the health of operators [248].
Inorganic Chemical Pollutants
William J. Rea, Kalpana D. Patel in Reversibility of Chronic Disease and Hypersensitivity, Volume 4, 2017
In industry, chlorine comes from rock salt (NaCl). Chlorine is then used in drinking water and in a variety of industrial practices for the production of chlorinated solvents, for example, CCl4, CCl3, trichloroethane, plastics, and vinyl chlorides, etc. Mild mucous membrane irritation may occur at 0.2–16 ppm; eye irritation occurs at 7–8 ppm, throat irritation at 15 ppm, and cough at 30 ppm.881 In several cases, prolonged symptoms following chlorine exposure may have been caused by aggravation of preexisting conditions, such as tuberculosis or heart disease.882 Higher concentrations can cause severe poisoning in even shorter periods.883 Chlorine dioxide also causes similar respiratory ailments.883 Lower levels of chlorine concentrations can cause irritation of the lower respiratory passages, the eyes, the nose, and the throat. Excess chlorine may put a strain on the dehalogen oxidation and conjugation systems.
Human chlorine gas exposition and its management – an umbrella review on human data
Published in Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 2022
Aboubakari Nambiema, Gabrielle Coyo, Jean-Baptiste Barbe-Richaud, Jeremy Blottiaux, Nicolas Retière-Doré, Grace Sembajwe, Alexis Descatha
Chlorine is an irritant gas whose toxicity depends on the concentration, duration of exposure (Squadrito et al. 2010), preexisting respiratory conditions (D'Alessandro et al. 1996; White and Martin 2010; Kim et al. 2014) and whether the person exposed is a current or former smoker (D'Alessandro et al. 1996; White and Martin 2010; Kim et al. 2014). When inhaled, the respiratory tract is the primary initial target organ (Milanez 2020) with acute health consequences ranging from irritation of the upper respiratory airways (Winder 2001; Carpenter et al. 2016) to acute lung injury, which can lead to pulmonary obstruction (White and Martin 2010), reactive airway dysfunction syndrome (Winder 2001; Kim et al. 2014), acute respiratory distress syndrome (White and Martin 2010; Shin et al. 2017) and, rarely, death (Winder 2001; Kim et al. 2014). Further long-term damage may occur like reactive airway dysfunction syndrome (Donnelly and FitzGerald 1990; Schwartz et al. 1990; Schönhofer et al. 1996; Duncan et al. 2011). At low concentrations (<40ppm), victims develop mild to moderate mucous membrane irritation (throat and eyes) and reversible bronchospasm and increased airway resistance, clinically reflected by cough, dyspnea, and chest pain. At higher chlorine concentrations (>40ppm), distal areas of lungs are reached, leading to pulmonary edema, toxic pneumonitis and death, if the exposure is too long (>30min at 430 ppm) or too intense (>1000 ppm) (Winder 2001). Other organs may be affected such as eyes with an irritation of the conjunctivae and skin with burns (Mangat et al. 2012).
Non-thermal techniques: a new approach to removing pesticide residues from fresh products and water
Published in Toxin Reviews, 2021
Reza Abedi-Firoozjah, Zahra Ghasempour, Sirous Khorram, Arezou Khezerlou, Ali Ehsani
Due to the fact that the CP simultaneously contains three factors that reduce toxins, which include energy charged particles such as electrons and ions, UV light and free radicals, and is more effective on the surface of food than other methods such as EB and Gamma, it is preferred. In most of the mentioned cases, the percentage of reduction of all kinds of toxins is higher than 70% and it has the ability to be used industrially in the place. On the other hand, there is no secondary environmental pollution. The high energy of gamma rays and EB and the high dose used can penetrate food and alter the chemical composition of food, such as toxins. Also, in addition to being expensive, the equipment of such systems is scarce in most countries, making it impossible to use. The salt electrolysis system is for the production of chlorine compounds, and the possibility of chlorine penetration into agricultural products is high, and few studies have been conducted in this regard (Lieberman and Lichtenberg 2005, Bermúdez-Aguirre 2019).
Development of chlorine-induced lung injury in the anesthetized, spontaneously breathing pig
Published in Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods, 2021
Rachel Watkins, Rosi Perrott, Simon Bate, Philippa Auton, Sarah Watts, Alexander Stoll, Stephen Rutter, Bronwen Jugg
Chlorine (Cl2) is an important, commonly used toxic industrial chemical produced and transported in large quantities, globally. One of its main uses is in water purification; as such its availability cannot be restricted. The easy availability and inherent toxicity make it attractive to aggressors (both state and non-state or terrorist groups) willing to disrupt infrastructure or cause mass panic and casualties. The Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) have confirmed the use of chlorine against civilians in a number of villages in Syria and Iraq (OPCW 2014) as well as its use by Iraqi insurgents conducting chemical attacks against Iraqi security forces and civilians (Morris 2014). Chlorine was also used against coalition troops using vehicle borne improvised explosive devices (Weitz et al. 2007; Jones et al. 2010). Whether produced for military or industrial use, chlorine gas represents a credible threat.
Related Knowledge Centers
- Electron Affinity
- Fluorine
- Hydrogen Chloride
- Oxide
- Oxidizing Agent
- Oxygen
- Salt
- Ammonium Chloride
- Mercury(Ii) Chloride
- Ion