Battlefield Chemical Inhalation Injury
Jacob Loke in Pathophysiology and Treatment of Inhalation Injuries, 2020
The formula for chlorine (Cl) is Cl2; density 2.5; specific gravity 1.41; boiling point -34.1°C. Chlorine appears as a greenish yellow gas with an acrid, pungent, characteristic odor. Since the odor threshold is substantially below the toxic limit, this substance is considered to have good warning properties. With chronic and repeated exposure, however, some threshold adaptation occurs (Beck, 1959). A progressive olfactory inhibition has been described. This progressive loss of sensitivity is thought to be the reason that chlorine workers suffer more frequent and more severe exposures in the later months and years of their work history, ostensibly because of the “warning” threshold of their olfactory sensitivity (Laciak and Sipa, 1958).
Chemistries of Chemical Warfare Agents
Brian J. Lukey, James A. Romano, Salem Harry in Chemical Warfare Agents, 2019
Physical Properties: Chlorine (atomic chlorine, Cl) has an atomic number of 17, an electronegativity of 3.2 (Pauling scale), and an atomic mass of 35.46 u. It is the third most electronegative element behind fluorine and oxygen. Throughout this chapter, the term chlorine refers to Cl2 unless otherwise noted. Chlorine is a highly reactive nonmetal (halogen) element appearing as a greenish-yellow gas with a density of 3.2 g/mL at standard temperature and pressure (STP). Solid chlorine melts at –101°C, and the gas liquefies at room temperature at 7.9 atm, or at −34°C at 1 atm. The substance has a water solubility of 0.64 g Cl2/100 g water at room temperature and a pungent odor.
Aromatherapy for Pain Relief
Mark V. Boswell, B. Eliot Cole in Weiner's Pain Management, 2005
One of the malodorous pollutants that has been studied, trichloroethylene, a universally present air pollutant, can cause cephalgia (Hirsch & Rankin, 1993). Acute exposure to nitrogen tetroxide can cause cephalgia (Hirsch, 1995a) and chronic neurotoxicity (Hirsch, 1995d). Acute exposure to chlorine gas can cause neurotoxicity (Hirsch, 1995c). In 1991, Neutra et al. reported that people living near hazardous waste sites suffer more physical symptoms during times when they can detect malodors than when they are unaware of them. Shusterman (1992) demonstrated that even at levels considered nontoxic, chemical effluviums can cause physical symptoms.
Development of chlorine-induced lung injury in the anesthetized, spontaneously breathing pig
Published in Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods, 2021
Rachel Watkins, Rosi Perrott, Simon Bate, Philippa Auton, Sarah Watts, Alexander Stoll, Stephen Rutter, Bronwen Jugg
Chlorine (Cl2) is an important, commonly used toxic industrial chemical produced and transported in large quantities, globally. One of its main uses is in water purification; as such its availability cannot be restricted. The easy availability and inherent toxicity make it attractive to aggressors (both state and non-state or terrorist groups) willing to disrupt infrastructure or cause mass panic and casualties. The Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) have confirmed the use of chlorine against civilians in a number of villages in Syria and Iraq (OPCW 2014) as well as its use by Iraqi insurgents conducting chemical attacks against Iraqi security forces and civilians (Morris 2014). Chlorine was also used against coalition troops using vehicle borne improvised explosive devices (Weitz et al. 2007; Jones et al. 2010). Whether produced for military or industrial use, chlorine gas represents a credible threat.
Human chlorine gas exposition and its management – an umbrella review on human data
Published in Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 2022
Aboubakari Nambiema, Gabrielle Coyo, Jean-Baptiste Barbe-Richaud, Jeremy Blottiaux, Nicolas Retière-Doré, Grace Sembajwe, Alexis Descatha
Chlorine is an irritant gas whose toxicity depends on the concentration, duration of exposure (Squadrito et al. 2010), preexisting respiratory conditions (D'Alessandro et al. 1996; White and Martin 2010; Kim et al. 2014) and whether the person exposed is a current or former smoker (D'Alessandro et al. 1996; White and Martin 2010; Kim et al. 2014). When inhaled, the respiratory tract is the primary initial target organ (Milanez 2020) with acute health consequences ranging from irritation of the upper respiratory airways (Winder 2001; Carpenter et al. 2016) to acute lung injury, which can lead to pulmonary obstruction (White and Martin 2010), reactive airway dysfunction syndrome (Winder 2001; Kim et al. 2014), acute respiratory distress syndrome (White and Martin 2010; Shin et al. 2017) and, rarely, death (Winder 2001; Kim et al. 2014). Further long-term damage may occur like reactive airway dysfunction syndrome (Donnelly and FitzGerald 1990; Schwartz et al. 1990; Schönhofer et al. 1996; Duncan et al. 2011). At low concentrations (<40ppm), victims develop mild to moderate mucous membrane irritation (throat and eyes) and reversible bronchospasm and increased airway resistance, clinically reflected by cough, dyspnea, and chest pain. At higher chlorine concentrations (>40ppm), distal areas of lungs are reached, leading to pulmonary edema, toxic pneumonitis and death, if the exposure is too long (>30min at 430 ppm) or too intense (>1000 ppm) (Winder 2001). Other organs may be affected such as eyes with an irritation of the conjunctivae and skin with burns (Mangat et al. 2012).
Halogen gas exposure: toxic effects on the parturient
Published in Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods, 2021
Dylan R. Addis, James A. Lambert, David A. Ford, Tamas Jilling, Sadis Matalon
Today the non-medical applications of the halogens are myriad with bromine having continued value in photographic development, dyes, purification agents, disinfectants, and as a flame retardant. Chlorine remains commonly utilized for water sanitation and is employed broadly for numerous industrial and medicinal processes. Several reports indicate that bromine is a more effective disinfectant than chlorine resulting in an increased utilization of bromine for drinking water purification (Floyd et al. 1976; Coulliette et al. 2010; World Health Organization 2018). To facilitate this demand global production of bromine exceeds 500 000 tons annually with the United States, China, and Israel (where the Dead Sea serves as an important source of bromine) responsible for the majority of production (The International Bromine Council 2019). Chlorine is produced on a larger scale with a global estimation of 58 million metric tons of chlorine and 62 million metric tons of sodium hydroxide (a co-product of chlorine) produced annually (World Chlorine Council 2012).
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