Ultrasound in Assisted Reproductive Technology: Anatomy and Core Examination Skills
Arianna D'Angelo, Nazar N. Amso in Ultrasound in Assisted Reproduction and Early Pregnancy, 2020
The normal sonographic appearance of the pelvic organs depends on knowledge of the menstrual cycle and its influence on the pelvic structures. The menstrual cycle: Hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle are well documented (Figure 1.5) and detailed in Chapters 3 and 4. Uterine and endometrial morphological changes during the menstrual cycle and their sonographic appearances are reported in Chapter 3 and are not discussed further here. Similarly, ovarian changes and follicular development during the menstrual cycle and their sonographic appearances are elaborated on in Chapter 4 and are not discussed further here.
Anatomy and physiology
Suzanne Everett in Handbook of Contraception and Sexual Health, 2020
The menstrual cycle describes the changes to the endometrium. The menstrual cycle is 28 days in length on average, but can vary between 21 and 35 days. The menstrual cycle is divided into three stages: Proliferative phase lasts 10–11 days and coincides with ovarian follicle growth and secretion of oestrogen. The endometrium gradually builds up.Secretory phase lasts for 14 days and is under the influence of progesterone and oestrogens. The endometrium is now 5 mm in thickness. If after 12–14 days no fertilization has taken place, then the corpus luteum will degenerate and oestrogen and progesterone will decline, resulting in menstruation.Menstrual phase lasts three to seven days and is where menses occur, at the end of which the endometrium will be 0.5 mm in thickness.
The menopause
Myra Hunter, Melanie Smith in Managing Hot Flushes and Night Sweats, 2020
During the menstrual cycle, hormones are sent directly into the bloodstream from the ovaries, as well as from the adrenal glands (which are just above the kidneys). The pituitary gland at the base of the brain releases a follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and a luteinizing hormone (LH). FSH and LH cause the ovaries to release oestrogen and progesterone. In a feedback loop, the levels of oestrogen and progesterone in the bloodstream then regulate the amounts of FSH and LH that are produced. So during a regular menstrual cycle, this system adjusts and regulates the amounts of hormones in the body. During the first half of the menstrual cycle, FSH causes the egg (ovum) to develop and mature, and oestrogen levels rise. Ovulation (which occurs when the egg leaves the ovaries) is triggered when oestrogen reaches a certain level in the bloodstream, and this causes the pituitary to produce LH. If pregnancy does not occur, levels of oestrogen and progesterone fall, and the lining of the womb is shed. Menstruation occurs, and the whole cycle continues again.
Association of climacterium with temporomandibular disorders at the age of 46 years – a cross-sectional study
Published in Acta Odontologica Scandinavica, 2023
Eerika Mursu, Jia Yu, Elina Karjalainen, Susanna Savukoski, Maarit Niinimäki, Ritva Näpänkangas, Paula Pesonen, Pertti Pirttiniemi, Aune Raustia
Climacterium, the time of gradual loss of oestrogen production and ovarian function (ovulation and oestrogen production), naturally appears in women in their 50 s [12]. The mean natural age of menopause (last menstruation) is 51 years, but 5–10% of women experience menopause at age 40–44 (early menopause, EM) and about 1% by the age of 40 (premature ovarian insufficiency, POI) [13]. When the ovarian function decreases during the climacterium, the pituitary gland attempts to raise the circulating oestrogen levels by secreting more follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) which stimulates the ovaries throughout the menstrual cycle to produce oestrogen [14]. The circulating FSH is shown to be associated with serum oestradiol (E2) [15]. During climacterium, the menstrual cycle will gradually cease, from irregular cycles to amenorrhoea, and decreased oestrogen levels cause subjective symptoms, namely hot flushes, sweating, sleep disturbance, and altered mood. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) with oestrogen has been shown to be effective to alleviate menopausal symptoms [16]. At the time of menopause, more than half of women also report musculoskeletal pain and pain in the joints, but the evidence is still lacking concerning the association between sex hormones and musculoskeletal pain [17].
Inter-organ regulation by the brain in Drosophila development and physiology
Published in Journal of Neurogenetics, 2023
Sunggyu Yoon, Mingyu Shin, Jiwon Shim
Recent studies have extended the significance of brain functions to animal physiology and homeostasis (Castillo-Armengol et al., 2019; Roh et al., 2016). One example of such control is the endocrine system involving the pituitary gland, hypothalamus, or pineal gland in humans, where various hormones are released into blood vessels to modulate the function of other organs. The mechanism underlying the human menstrual cycle is modified by follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) generated by gonadotropic cells of the anterior pituitary gland. The release of FSH and LH is activated by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), controlled by negative estrogen feedback produced by the ovary (Mihm et al., 2011). In addition to endocrine pathways transmitted via representative hormones, unconventional signaling molecules, including neurotransmitters and metabolic byproducts, also serve as signaling messengers (Gancheva et al., 2018; Marina et al., 2018; Newsholme et al., 2003), which together facilitate inter-organ interaction. However, owing to the sophisticated nature of such interactions, it is challenging to delineate the mechanistic details underlying inter-organ communication in vivo, especially in higher vertebrates.
Opinions of special education teachers on inappropriate sexual behaviors in adolescents with intellectual disabilities
Published in International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 2022
The opinion that ISBs are more common in male adolescents with ID is prevalent. This may be owing to the fact that female students are subjected to social and family pressure more frequently. As a participant stated, ‘Girls somehow learn that they have to suppress these urges…’ It is known that families can be more protective and oppressive of women with disabilities (Morales et al.2016). It was reported that female students with ID exhibit some behavioral problems, especially before their menstrual cycle. Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) brings about some physical and psychological changes with the menstrual cycle and is expressed to be a subjective process (Ibralic et al.2010). According to Erbaş and Altunbaş (2021), of typically developing female adolescents, 78.3% experience abdominal or inguinal pain before menstruation, 65.2% lower back pain, 44.9% skin problems, 51.7% fatigue, 51.2% emotional problems, and 50.2% irritability before menstruation period. Kyrkou (2005), however, reported that female adolescents with ID experience PMS symptoms more severely. The findings of this study correspond to the relevant studies in the literature in this regard.
Related Knowledge Centers
- Egg Cell
- Estrogen
- Ovary
- Progesterone
- Embryo
- Uterus
- Pregnancy
- Hormone
- Female Reproductive System
- Follicle-Stimulating Hormone