What is motor control?
Andrea Utley in Motor Control, Learning and Development, 2018
Motor development refers to the process of change that a person passes through as they grow and mature. Development, according to Keogh and Sugden (1985, p. 6), is an ‘adaptive change towards competence’. The human adult is capable of performing a variety of motor skills and demonstrates a high level of control and dexterity. The development of motor control is complex and involves the development of many behaviors (see Chapter 14). Motor development in children is so rapid and so apparent that we sometimes forget that motor development is a lifelong process – learning to walk for example. During the development of motor control, children are establishing the movement patterns and control synergies that will be used throughout life. This development has implications when studying how movements are coordinated and how this is influenced by task constraints and the environmental context.
Movement coordination, control and skill acquisition in DCD
Anna L. Barnett, Elisabeth L. Hill in Understanding Motor Behaviour in Developmental Coordination Disorder, 2019
Motor development reflects how an infant or child learns and acquires skill through spontaneous practice. Given that children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) do not spontaneously acquire motor skill in the same way as we see in typical development, it is clear why DCD is often referred to as a motor learning disorder (Biotteau, Chaix, & Albaret, 2016; Ferguson, Jelsma, Jelsma, & Smits-Engelsman, 2013; Magallón, Crespo-Eguílaz, & Narbona, 2015; Schoemaker & Smits-Engelsman, 2015). It also explains the motivation for the definition of the first criterion for DCD in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders which in fact states ‘the acquisition and execution of coordinated motor skills are substantially below that expected given the individual’s chronological age and opportunity for skill learning and use’ (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). However, surprisingly few studies have specifically examined motor learning in this group and so although we may describe DCD as a disorder of motor learning, exactly what this means is unclear. This chapter will describe the handful of studies which have focused on motor learning in this population and will contextualise this within the constraints-based-approach to motor control. We will then consider aspects of motor control and skill acquisition raised by Newell and Pacheco, which have not yet been studied in children with DCD.
Human Development and Its Theories
Mohamed Ahmed Abd El-Hay in Understanding Psychology for Medicine and Nursing, 2019
Physical development refers to physical body changes across time. This occurs in a relatively stable, predictable sequence. It is orderly, not random. Changes in bone thickness, vision, hearing, and muscle are all included. Changes in size and weight are also part of physical development. Physical skills, such as crawling, walking, and writing result from physical development. These skills fall into gross and fine motor development. Gross motor development involves improvement of skills using the large muscles in the legs and arms. Activities such as running, skipping, and bike riding fall into this category. Fine motor development involves the small muscles of the hands and fingers. Grasping, holding, cutting, and drawing are examples of activities that require fine motor development.
Investigation of the effects of physical education activities on motor skills and quality of life in children with intellectual disability
Published in International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 2023
ID causes limitations in various individual functions and often manifests as delayed motor and intellectual growth, low academic performance, and poor social communication skills (Baghande et al.2019). International evidence shows that children and young individuals with ID are less active than children of the same age without ID (Frey et al.2017). Physical fitness level affects motor and mental development (Skowroński et al.2018). In the transition from childhood to adolescence, the relationship between physical activity and motor skills becomes more important and stronger. Higher motor skill level provides more opportunities for physical, sports and game activities (Goodway et al.2019). Motor development is the continuous change in motor behavior throughout the life cycle (Gallahue et al.2012). Children with ID have delays in fine motor skills when compared to children of the same age without ID (Budury et al.2020). Many researchers state that children with ID perform less well in standard fitness tests and also have problems with balance and strength (Garavand et al.2018). Klavina et al. (2017) found that the levels of gross motor skills of primary school children diagnosed with ID were not at the level required by their age. Klavina et al. (2017) found that 50% of the participants scored lower for locomotor skills and 62% for object control skills in the performance scores required by chronological age. While the performance age level for these parameters was 9.6, it was determined as 6.3 for children with ID.
Does the combination of physical activity and attention training affect the motor skills and cognitive activities of individuals with mild intellectual disability?
Published in International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 2023
Sub-factors of motor development include fine motor integration, fine motor precision, dexterity, upper-limb coordination, which are effective on fast, accurate and controlled movement (Zwicker and Harris 2009). Fine motor skills are crucial for early learning and development (Pitchford et al.2016). It is significant for individuals with MID to eliminate fine motor skill deficiencies so as to achieve their daily lifestyle skills. Although there were findings that fine motor skills were improved by physical activities performed on individuals with MID (Top 2015), it had been stated within the study that it might not be enough to eliminate fine motor skills deficiencies only by physical activities, alongside cognitive functions and learning areas should be developed together (Vuijk et al.2010). In the study of Hartman et al. (2010) stated that although individuals got lower scores in locomotor skills than the individuals with borderline intellectual functioning, there was no difference in object control skills and that they also indicated that motor skills and cognitive activities should be developed together.
A maternal high-fat/high-caloric diet delays reflex ontogeny during lactation but enhances locomotor performance during late adolescence in rats
Published in Nutritional Neuroscience, 2019
Erika Vanesa Cadena-Burbano, Carolina Cadete Lucena Cavalcanti, Amanda Braz Lago, Raquel de Arruda Campos Benjamim, Thaynan Raquel dos Prazeres Oliveira, Jacqueline Maria Silva, Raul Manhães-De-Castro, Raquel Da Silva Aragão
The development of locomotion requires fine coordination with the simultaneous activity of different motor pathways as well as the maturation and functional integration of the nervous and muscular systems.1,2 Precocial animals (chickens, horses, guinea pigs) are able to stand and ambulate within several hours after birth/hatching.2 Altricial animals (humans, rats, cats) require more time to be able to walk.2 In altricial animals, motor development follows a hierarchical and well-described sequence that starts with reflex responses that evolve into rhythmic and poorly coordinated movements until reaching an adult pattern of movement directed towards a function or a purpose.1,3 Reflexes are involuntary movements in response to specific stimuli.4,5 In rats, the first voluntary motor responses include pivoting and crawling during the first week of life.1 At the end of the second week of life, they are able to stand against gravity, and by the third week, they can walk.1 However, this pattern requires further refinement for better control and behavioural development.6,7 Therefore, these initial postnatal periods are very sensitive to motor development.