Fungi and Water
Chuong Pham-Huy, Bruno Pham Huy in Food and Lifestyle in Health and Disease, 2022
Fungi including mushrooms, molds, and yeasts are eukaryotic organisms as vegetable or animal species, but are classified as a separate kingdom because fungal cell walls contain rigid chitin and glucans that are not found in animal, vegetal, or bacterial species (1–8). Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus and other organelles enclosed within membranes. In other words, the fungal kingdom comprises a hyper diverse clade of heterotrophic eukaryotes characterized by the presence of a chitinous cell wall, the loss of phagotrophic capabilities, and cell organizations that range from completely unicellular monopolar organisms to highly complex syncytial filaments (containing several nuclei) that may form macroscopic structures (8). Mushrooms like morels, button mushroom, and puffballs are macroscopic multicellular fungi, while molds are a large group of microscopic multicellular fungi. Molds are characterized by filamentous forms named hyphae. Many fungi occur not as hyphae but as unicellular forms called yeasts, which are invisible to the naked eye and reproduce by budding (2–4).
Hormonal Regulation of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation
Jean Morisset, Travis E. Solomon in Growth of the Gastrointestinal Tract: Gastrointestinal Hormones and Growth Factors, 2017
The eukaryotic cell is a very complex structure that can perform a large variety of specialized functions. There are more than 200 different types of eukaryotic cells in vertebrate animals. These range from the pluripotential hematopoietic stem cell to the highly specialized nerve cell. These different types of cells are grouped into integrated units that make up the various tissues and organs. For example, the gastrointestinal tract in humans consists of different types of absorptive and secretory epithelial cells, muscle cells, immune cells, nerve cells, endothelial cells, connective tissue cells, and endocrine cells. Many of these cell types are short lived. In order to function properly, every organism must be able to replace lost cells. This regenerative capacity is highly variable from tissue to tissue, is tightly regulated in most circumstances in order to allow the new cells to assume their proper differentiated functions, but is altogether nonexistent in certain cell types in the adult organism.
Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Multiple Sclerosis
Shamim I. Ahmad in Handbook of Mitochondrial Dysfunction, 2019
Mitochondria are one of the double-membrane organelles in eukaryotic cells. One of the most important roles of mitochondria is oxidative energy metabolism. Mitochondria contain the respiratory chain where energy is most efficiently produced in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (Chan 2006). The mitochondrial respiratory chain is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane and consists of five complexes (complexes I–V), whereof, the complex V is directly involved in ATP synthesis (Friedman and Nunnari 2014). Mitochondria are a significant source of reactive oxygen species (ROS) within most mammalian cells. Therefore, any damage that impairs the function of the respiratory chain might also have an impact on cell survival. To protect cells from oxidative burst, mitochondria contain an intricate defense system to exonerate from ROS and repair ROS-induced damages (Nita and Grzybowski 2016).
Bacteria and cells as alternative nano-carriers for biomedical applications
Published in Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery, 2022
Rafaela García-Álvarez, María Vallet-Regí
Bacteria and cells have been utilized for medical purposes for a very long time. The interesting properties and behavior they exhibit as a function of cell or bacteria type are remarkable characteristics that make them a relevant alternative for biomedical applications, such as cancer therapy or as drug delivery platforms. On the one hand, bacteria possess intrinsic characteristics such as self-propulsion, bacterial taxis, or stimuli-responsive capacities. In addition, they can be used for internalization of genetic material through batofection, and they can be emptied and employed in the form of bacteria ghosts as drug delivery platforms. On the other hand, eukaryotic cells also have a long history of medical applications, with examples as common nowadays, such as blood transfusion or skin transplants. Among the numerous types of cells existing in our organisms, a variety of them display remarkable properties like long-term circulation or tumor-targeting nature, which makes them useful for a potential use in biomedical applications. Moreover, in a similar way to bacterial ghosts, cell membranes, exosomes, and lipid mixtures are used as envelopes for bioactive molecules or other therapeutic agents.
A comprehensive search of functional sequence space using large mammalian display libraries created by gene editing
Published in mAbs, 2019
Kothai Parthiban, Rajika L. Perera, Maheen Sattar, Yanchao Huang, Sophie Mayle, Edward Masters, Daniel Griffiths, Sachin Surade, Rachael Leah, Michael R. Dyson, John McCafferty
This approach was initially demonstrated in simple eukaryotes such as yeast cells,3 but creation of large libraries in higher eukaryotic cells would bring significant advantages. The glycosylation, expression and secretion machinery of yeast is different from that of higher eukaryotes, giving rise to antibodies with different post-translational modifications than those produced in mammalian cells. In addition, libraries of binders expressed within mammalian cells (either on the cell surface or by secretion) can be used to identify clones based on functions beyond antigen binding. Identification of binding interactions that directly affect cellular phenotype allows direct selection for biological function.4,5 Such benefits have driven the attempts described below to create a display system based in higher eukaryotes.
Protective role of PERK-eIF2α-ATF4 pathway in chronic renal failure induced injury of rat hippocampal neurons
Published in International Journal of Neuroscience, 2023
Qi Chen, Jingjing Min, Ming Zhu, Zhanqin Shi, Pingping Chen, Lingyan Ren, Xiaoyi Wang
The endoplasmic reticulum is one of the most important organelles in eukaryotic cells. It is not only the site for protein translation and synthesis as well as calcium ion storage, but also a participant in the transmission and processing of various cell signals. In addition, one of the major functions of the endoplasmic reticulum is to serve as a site for synthesizing secretory and integral membrane proteins.5,6 When cells are stimulated by hypoxia, an imbalance of calcium ions or a change in their concentration occurs in the internal environment, accompanied with the accumulation of some unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum, resulting in an imbalance between the structure and function of the endoplasmic reticulum. At this time, the corresponding signal pathway is activated to further trigger the endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) response.7 Unfolded protein response activation can be triggered in the following three ways: (1) inhibition of protein translation to prevent the production of more folded proteins; (2) induction of the folding of unfolded proteins by the endoplasmic reticulum chaperone; (3) activation of endoplasmic reticulum associated degradation pathways to remove unfolded proteins accumulated in the endoplasmic reticulum.8 However, under prolonged or severe stress, the unfolded protein response initiates programmed cell death.
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