Beneficial Use of Viruses
Eric S. Loker, Bruce V. Hofkin in Parasitology, 2015
Different biological disciplines answer this question in different ways. For example, among microbiologists and infectious disease specialists, the term parasite is often used to refer to those organisms with the properties of parasites that are eukaryotes. Eukaryotes are organisms with a defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, such as mitochondria. Eukaryotes include unicellular protozoans, fungi, plants, and animals (this diversity is discussed in more detail in Chapter 2). Bear in mind that many eukaryotes are free-living and so are not parasites. From this vantage point, suborganismal entities, such as prions or viruses, and prokaryotes (bacteria) that infect hosts and cause them damage are not parasites. Parasites (in the restricted eukaryotic sense), viruses, and some bacteria are all considered infectious agents or pathogens by this reckoning.
An Introduction to Parasitism
Eric S. Loker, Bruce V. Hofkin in Parasitology, 2023
Different biological disciplines answer this question in different ways. For example, among microbiologists and infectious disease specialists, the term parasite is often used to refer to those organisms with the properties of parasites that are eukaryotes. Eukaryotes are organisms with a defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, such as mitochondria. Eukaryotes include unicellular protists (or protozoa), fungi, plants and animals (this diversity is discussed in more detail in Chapter 2). Bear in mind that many eukaryotes are free-living and so are not parasites. From this vantage point, suborganismal entities, such as prions or viruses, and prokaryotes (bacteria) that infect hosts and cause them damage are not parasites. Parasites (in the restricted eukaryotic sense), viruses and some bacteria are all considered infectious agents or pathogens by this reckoning (Figure 1.4).
Fungi and Water
Chuong Pham-Huy, Bruno Pham Huy in Food and Lifestyle in Health and Disease, 2022
Fungi including mushrooms, molds, and yeasts are eukaryotic organisms as vegetable or animal species, but are classified as a separate kingdom because fungal cell walls contain rigid chitin and glucans that are not found in animal, vegetal, or bacterial species (1–8). Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus and other organelles enclosed within membranes. In other words, the fungal kingdom comprises a hyper diverse clade of heterotrophic eukaryotes characterized by the presence of a chitinous cell wall, the loss of phagotrophic capabilities, and cell organizations that range from completely unicellular monopolar organisms to highly complex syncytial filaments (containing several nuclei) that may form macroscopic structures (8). Mushrooms like morels, button mushroom, and puffballs are macroscopic multicellular fungi, while molds are a large group of microscopic multicellular fungi. Molds are characterized by filamentous forms named hyphae. Many fungi occur not as hyphae but as unicellular forms called yeasts, which are invisible to the naked eye and reproduce by budding (2–4).
Identification of Rab7 as an autophagy marker: potential therapeutic approaches and the effect of Qi Teng Xiao Zhuo granule in chronic glomerulonephritis
Published in Pharmaceutical Biology, 2023
Xiujuan Qin, Huiyu Chen, Xiaoli Zhu, Xianjin Xu, Jiarong Gao
Mitochondria are important eukaryotic cell organelles; they produce ATP via oxidative phosphorylation and provide 95% of the cell’s energy requirements. They are also involved in metabolic signal transduction, inflammation, and apoptosis regulation. The kidney is rich in mitochondria, which play a key role in its function, and mitochondrial damage and dysfunction are major factors in many chronic and acute kidney diseases (Tang et al. 2021). Maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis and metabolic balance is crucial for kidney function (Bhargava and Schnellmann 2017). When mitochondrial damage and dysfunction occur, mitophagy is induced to maintain cell homeostasis, removing damaged or excess mitochondria (Su et al. 2023). Transmission electron microscopy showed that abnormal mitochondrial cristae and decreased autophagosomes were apparent in the model group. Interestingly, we also found that mitochondrial damage was reduced after QTXZG treatment.
Current advances in the algae-made biopharmaceuticals field
Published in Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy, 2020
Sergio Rosales-Mendoza, Karla I. Solís-Andrade, Verónica A. Márquez-Escobar, Omar González-Ortega, Bernardo Bañuelos-Hernandez
The first step on the developmental path for the production of algae-made biopharmaceuticals comprises the design of the gene coding for the biopharmaceutical and its cloning to construct an expression vector that allows developing transformed algae clones. For these goals a detailed knowledge of the algae molecular biology (regulatory sequences such as promoters and terminators [36,37], signal peptides [38], genome insertion sites [39], etc.) is required to successfully express the functional biopharmaceuticals. Nuclear and chloroplast-based expression can be applied for the production of biopharmaceuticals and each alternative has its features and limitations that should be considered in a case by case scenario based on the characteristics of the biopharmaceutical of interest (i.e. requirements in terms of glycosylation, multimeric assembly, and protein secretion); each of these approaches leads to differential contexts in terms of protein processing. The chloroplast is an organelle present in photosynthetic eukaryotic algae where several biosynthetic pathways happen. For instance, the syntheses of fatty acids, amino acids, and isoprenoids occur in this organelle. The chloroplast possesses a circular genome (plastome) and the transcriptional and translational machineries to synthesize proteins. In fact, unlike bacterial hosts, the chloroplast from C. reinhardtii possesses chaperones [3], peptidyl propylisomerases (PPIases) [21], and protein disulfide isomerases (PDIs) [40] that allow proper synthesis of complex proteins requiring disulfide bonds for correct folding [41].
Syntaphilin mediates axonal growth and synaptic changes through regulation of mitochondrial transport: a potential pharmacological target for neurodegenerative diseases
Published in Journal of Drug Targeting, 2023
Qing-Yun Wu, Hui-Lin Liu, Hai-Yan Wang, Kai-Bin Hu, Ping Liao, Sen Li, Zai-Yun Long, Xiu-Min Lu, Yong-Tang Wang
Physiological activities such as the generation of nerve impulses, the formation of synapses, and the transmission of nerve signalling are all heavily energy-consuming processes. Mitochondria, the organelles found in eukaryotic cells, are responsible for converting stored energy from organic matter into adenosine triphosphate (ATP). They play a critical role in cellular energy metabolism and produce 90% of the ATP required for cellular metabolism [1]. The brain relies heavily on mitochondria to produce most of the ATP needed for its functions and energy metabolism [2], and synapses are the main site of energy expenditure [3]. As the primary energy source for neurons, mitochondria are crucial for maintaining synaptic activities, including synaptic assembly, action potential and synaptic potential production, and synaptic vesicle (SV) transport and recycling [4]. Axonal mitochondrial deficiency affects synaptic transmission, and defective mitochondrial transport and energy deficiency are associated with the failure of axonal regeneration after injury and the pathogenesis of multiple neurological diseases [5–7]. Mitochondrial motility is also affected by stress or damage to its integrity. Consequently, ensuring mitochondrial health and motor function is essential for axonal growth, maintenance of synaptic energy balance, and synaptic function.
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