Triathlon
Ira Glick, Danielle Kamis, Todd Stull in The ISSP Manual of Sports Psychiatry, 2018
Physical doping refers to the use of illicit or banned substances to enhance one’s physical performance. Conversely, cognitive doping is using illicit or prescription substances to enhance cognitive performance, such as memory, concentration, and attention. Distinct from doping, the term “physical enhancement” is sometimes used to describe the use of legal substances (i.e., vitamins, minerals, protein, carbohydrates, or salt tablets) for improving sports performance. Similarly, “cognitive enhancement” has been used to refer to the use of legal substances like caffeine or ginkgo biloba in an effort to gain a cognitive edge. For example, a triathlete might use caffeine to focus on their pre-race routine or adapt to a time-zone change after traveling to a race location. Of course, athletes should be aware of the risk of supplements containing banned substances (Dietz et al., 2013). One resource available to athletes and clinicians is Supplement 411, which is the United States Anti-Doping Agency’s (USADA) online tool to educate and promote awareness about dietary supplement safety (USADA, n.d.-b).
Testosterone in Sport
Datta Sourya, Debasis Bagchi in Extreme and Rare Sports, 2019
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, there was a well-documented and widespread use of PEDs in the professional cycling peloton (Vest Christiansen 2005, 497–514). The most common methods of doping were the use of autologous blood transfusions, erythropoietin (EPO), testosterone and growth hormone. The use of blood transfusions and EPO is designed to increase the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood by increasing the number of red blood cells, and thereby increase the capacity for aerobic respiration and hence improve endurance performance. Testosterone, on the other hand, is thought to have been used by cyclists to recover more quickly, which is obviously important in the prestigious three-week-long grand tours. Growth hormone is thought to have been used for a similar purpose. Testosterone stimulates protein synthesis and may therefore facilitate more rapid repair of damaged muscle fibres. The choice between using testosterone or growth hormone may have come down to personal preference – Floyd Landis, who was stripped of the Tour de France title for doping, reported that growth hormone didn’t make him feel as stiff and bloated as testosterone did (Shen 2011).
Introduction
Linda M. Castell, Samantha J. Stear (Nottingham), Louise M. Burke in Nutritional Supplements in Sport, Exercise and Health, 2015
There are cases in which a doping infringement can be traced back to supplement use and for which the athlete has undertaken some strategies to reduce this risk. For example, the athlete has received written advice from a supplement manufacturer that their product does not contain banned substances but, following a positive doping test, a sealed container of the dietary supplement has been examined and found to contain the banned ingredient. Unfortunately, strict liability applies to these situations and, even if an athlete has been successful in having the terms of their ban from sport reduced, a doping infringement will still be recorded against their name. The loss of a career, livelihood and reputation are stakes that an athlete must take into account when using dietary supplements.
Attitude and practice of substance misuse and dietary supplements to improve performance in sport
Published in Journal of Substance Use, 2019
Doping is also known as follows: “The intentional use by the athletes of drugs or methods aimed at obtaining an improved sports performance beyond the limits possible only with training”. It has become an important topic in virtually every sport and has been discovered in athletes of all ages and at every level of competition. Importantly, performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) are not restricted to illegal drugs or prescription medications, such as anabolic steroid and inhaled bronchodilators (Mazzeo, 2018; Perrotta, Mazzeo, & Cerqua, 2017). They include dietary supplements vitamins, minerals and more and a variety of compounds that are available at grocery and health food stores and website. These substances are increasingly used by athletes, in competitive sports, but at the same time in fitness and recreational sports (Mazzeo, Santamaria et al., 2016). It is important to know the motivation and the advantages to led the athletes to dope (Table 2). In advance, it is important to know that the prohibited substances and/or the amount of substance prohibited constantly change: some of them have been eliminated over time while others have been added. For example, pseudoephedrine and norephedrine were removed from the list in 2003 but in 2013, the first substance was reintroduced with a different dosage. Local anesthetics and caffeine were eliminated in 2004 (Strano Rossi & Botrè 2011), even if the substance has been included in the monitoring program of WADA in 2015 (Table 3).
Activity-based reporter assays for the screening of abused substances in biological matrices
Published in Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 2019
Annelies Cannaert, Marthe Vandeputte, Sarah M. R. Wille, Christophe P. Stove
The recent increased popularity of novel designer compounds has also been observed in the doping world, with novel steroid hormone derivatives having entered the illicit market. Steroid hormones are among the most popular performance enhancing drugs abused in both elite and amateur sports (Yuan and Forman 2005; Houtman et al. 2009) and their use is prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) at all times, in and out of competition (World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) 2018). Steroids are mainly associated with doping by elite athletes to enhance athletic performance, but since the 1980s, their use by male non-athlete weightlifters to improve appearance by building muscle mass has exceeded their use by competitive athletes (National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 2018). Apart from their continued abuse in sports, steroid hormones have also been found as illicitly used growth-promoting agents in meat-producing animals to increase meat production, resulting in higher earnings (Blankvoort et al. 2003). The use of such growth promoters in livestock production, however, falls under the European ban published in 1988 (EU directive 96/22/EC). Instead of providing a limitative list of forbidden hormones, the ban prohibits all substances having hormonal actions (Nielen et al. 2006; Bovee and Pikkemaat 2009; Pinel et al. 2010).
Treating exercise-associated low testosterone and its related symptoms
Published in The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 2018
David R. Hooper, Adam S. Tenforde, Anthony C. Hackney
The medical standard of care for treatment of hypogonadism in men typically revolves around the use of pharmaceutical agents to address low serum testosterone, either through exogenous testosterone or medications to stimulate the production of testosterone. Competitive athletes suffering from EHMC may not use pharmacological treatment per WADA regulations. Testosterone and gonadotropin stimulator agents fall into the WADA ‘List of Prohibited Substances and Methods’ (categories: S1 Anabolic agents; S2, Peptide hormones, growth factors related substances, and mimetics) which if used constitutes a doping violation by the athlete [69]. WADA does have a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) option by which athletes can take banned drugs for medical reasons, but the scenario by which EMHC occurs as a consequence of exercise training does not fit into the circumstances by which WADA would grant a TUE to an athlete.
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