Avian Influenza Virus
Dongyou Liu in Handbook of Foodborne Diseases, 2018
One of the most common presentations is self-resolving conjunctivitis. Upper respiratory tract infections are also very common and often occur early in cases where the disease progresses to a lower respiratory tract infection. Upper respiratory tract infections cause the ubiquitous “influenza-like illness,” symptoms of which can include coughing, sore throat, aches, reduced appetite, and fever.23,39,41–46 In severe cases, pneumonia, acute respiratory disease syndrome, renal failure, and multiple organ dysfunction are typically seen.21,23,39,42,43,47–50 Vomiting and diarrhea are uncommon but can occur alone or in combination with respiratory symptoms.23 Encephalitis and central nervous system involvement in AIV infection in humans is very rare but has been reported with the H5N1 lineage.51
Cardiovascular system
Jagdish M. Gupta, John Beveridge in MCQs in Paediatrics, 2020
8.26. Prophylaxis with penicillin against subacute bacterial endocarditis in a patient with congenital heart disease isinadequate treatment for a child requiring abdominal surgery.not necessary in a patient with a very small ventricular septal defect.adequate treatment in a patient requiring dental treatment.not indicated in a patient who has had his ductus arteriosus ligated and who has no other cardiac lesions.indicated if the patient has an upper respiratory tract infection.
The respiratory system
Laurie K. McCorry, Martin M. Zdanowicz, Cynthia Y. Gonnella in Essentials of Human Physiology and Pathophysiology for Pharmacy and Allied Health, 2019
The majority of upper respiratory tract infections are caused by viruses. The most common viral pathogens for the “common cold” are rhinovirus, parainfluenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus, adenovirus, and coronavirus. Common cold viruses replicate best in the cooler tissues of the upper airways. These viruses tend to have seasonal variations in their peak incidence. They are readily spread from person to person via respiratory secretions, and gain entry to the body through the nasal mucosa, and surfaces of the eye. Common colds are normally self-limiting with symptoms generally lasting less than 1 week. Rhinosinusitis is inflammation of the nasal passages and sinuses. It may be caused by viral or bacterial (most commonly H. influenza, S. pneumoniae). Treatment of rhinosinusitis is mainly symptomatic, but antibiotics may be indicated with serious bacterial infections.
Throat infections and use of streptococcal antigen test and antibiotic treatment in general practice; a web-based survey
Published in Scandinavian Journal of Primary Health Care, 2022
Hanne Puntervoll, Pål Jenum, Sigurd Høye, Mette Tollånes
In our survey, most of the GPs (95%) would prescribe beta-lactamase-sensitive penicillin. This is in accordance with guidelines, which recommend phenoxymethylpenicillin as first-line treatment for most respiratory tract infections when antibiotic therapy is indicated. Approximately 4–5% of the GPs indicated that they would offer broad-spectrum antibiotics. Macrolides were also suggested by a few GPs. Treatment of upper respiratory tract infections with second-choice antibiotics is almost always unnecessary. Hence, treatment with broad-spectrum antibiotics in cases 1 and 2 would not be in accordance with guidelines. These findings are consistent with previous reports showing that macrolides and penicillin with extended-spectrum are used more often than recommended [18,19]. The use of macrolide antibiotics is particularly problematic as they may trigger microbial resistance [20].
Global emerging resistance in pediatric infections with TB, HIV, and gram-negative pathogens
Published in Paediatrics and International Child Health, 2021
Leslie A. Enane, John C. Christenson
What is driving this resistance? Antibiotic pressure in the ‘community’ is known to select for resistance. Clinicians are prescribing antibiotics as ‘prophylaxis’ for young infants with vesicoureteral reflux, a practice well known to select for resistant organisms [58]. Epidemiological studies have shown that ~50% of outpatient antibiotics are inappropriately prescribed, mostly for the treatment of infections caused by viral pathogens such as bronchitis, most episodes of pharyngitis and other upper respiratory tract infections. On any given day, 60% of inpatients are receiving an antimicrobial agent [59]. While for many the indications for therapy are appropriate, therapy is frequently too broad in coverage and/or the duration of therapy is too long. In a survey of children’s hospitals in the US, 35% of children received one or more antibiotic agents. Of those prescribed an antibiotic for an infection, ~25% were prescribed one or more suboptimal antibiotics. Unnecessary therapy corresponded to 11% of prescriptions, while another ~11% received too broad a regimen. Bug-drug mismatch consisted of ~28% of inappropriate regimens [60].
Can the immunological system of the upper respiratory tract, improved by physical exercise, act as a first immunological barrier against SARS-CoV-2?
Published in Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy, 2022
Jairo Azócar-Gallardo, Alex Ojeda-Aravena, Jorge Carrizo Largo, Claudio Hernández-Mosqueira
In anatomical terms, the respiratory tract is divided into two segments: upper (nose, nasal cavity, mouth, pharynx, and larynx) and lower (trachea, lungs, and bronchi) [21]. The upper respiratory tract, in particular, is the main site of attacks by invasive microorganisms such as viruses and bacteria, causing upper respiratory tract infections such as acute bronchitis, common cold, influenza, and respiratory distress syndromes [22–24]. To defend itself, the upper respiratory tract releases lymphocytes (B cells) which in turn allow the synthesis of immunoglobulins – specialized antibodies for the humoral immune response to toxins and extracellular pathogens [25,26]. The immunoglobulin family consists basically of three types: immunoglobulin A (IgA; IgA1 and IgA2), immunoglobulin G (IgG), and immunoglobulin M (IgM). They act by inhibiting microorganisms from adhering to the mucosa, thus neutralizing the virus [27,28]. IgA is the predominant antibody, secreted by the mucosas of the organism including nasal and pulmonary secretions, saliva, tears, milk and secretions of the urogenital and intestinal tracts; it is a fundamental ‘first line of defense’ against the vast majority of infections that try to invade the respiratory tract of the human body [23,25,26,29]. Therefore, IgA is an important resistance effector against the pathogenic micro-organisms that cause upper respiratory tract infections [23,25,30,31]; it also acts as a bridge between innate and adaptive immunity [17].