Developments of Health Care: A Brief History of Medicine
P. Mereena Luke, K. R. Dhanya, Didier Rouxel, Nandakumar Kalarikkal, Sabu Thomas in Advanced Studies in Experimental and Clinical Medicine, 2021
Continuing research in the first half of the 20th century concentrated mainly on the nature of infectious diseases and their mode of transmission [52]. Different types of pathogenic organisms were discovered and classified. Diseases like typhus fever caused by rickettsias, are highly pleomorphic bacteria that may occur in the forms of cocci 0.1 μm in diameter, rods 1–4 μm long, or threads up to about 10 μm long and are smaller bacteria. Other pathogenic organisms like protozoans are unicellular eukaryotes relatively complex internal structure and carry out complex metabolic activities. Protozoans causing tropical diseases including malaria [there are four species that infect humans: P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. falciparum] The viruses are smallest pathogenic organisms causing many diseases, German measles mumps, measles, polio, and malignant tumor [Rous sarcoma Virus]. Chemotherapy was launched in the early 20th century. Chemotherapy was pioneered by German scientist Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915) [53]. He introduced the term chemotherapy and studied substantial quantities of chemicals to evaluate their efficacy in treating infectious diseases and he defined the successors as “magic bullets.”
Infections in Solid Organ Transplant Recipients Admitted to the Critical Care Unit
Cheston B. Cunha, Burke A. Cunha in Infectious Diseases and Antimicrobial Stewardship in Critical Care Medicine, 2020
Notwithstanding, UTI is not a common cause of CCU admission. These infections usually present with a lack of systemic symptoms, with or without accompanying localized urinary symptoms; ureteral obstruction due to anastomosis site stenosis; hydronephrosis, or, less frequently, APN, and sepsis [73]. The most common pathogens include Enterobacteriaceae, enterococci, staphylococci, and Pseudomonas spp. [74]. Other less frequent microorganisms, such as Salmonella spp., Candida spp., and Corynebacterium urealyticum pose specific management problems in this population [75]. It is also important to remember the possibility of infection caused by unusual pathogens such as Mycoplasma hominis, M. tuberculosis, or BK polyomavirus (BK) and JC polyomavirus (JC). Unless another source of fever is readily apparent, any febrile KT patient with an abrupt deterioration in renal function should be treated with empiric antibacterial therapy aimed at gram-negative bacteria, including P. aeruginosa, after first obtaining blood and urine cultures, especially in the first 3 months of transplantation [76,77]. Examination of the iliac fossa is particularly important after KT. Tenderness, erythema, fluctuance, or an increased allograft size may indicate the presence of an infection caused by a microorganism resistant to antimicrobial resistance to drugs commonly used to prevent UTI in these patients such as cotrimoxazole or quinolones; thus, these drugs should not be selected for empirical therapy of severe UTI [78,79].
Wastewater treatment *
Jamie Bartram, Rachel Baum, Peter A. Coclanis, David M. Gute, David Kay, Stéphanie McFadyen, Katherine Pond, William Robertson, Michael J. Rouse in Routledge Handbook of Water and Health, 2015
The world is urbanizing, cities are growing, food production is intensifying, industries are producing a larger variety and quantity of chemical contaminants, and, as a result, we are producing more and more contaminated and polluted water and wastewater1 every year (UNEP 2010). Untreated wastewater is a vector for pathogen exposure by recirculating pathogens in the environment. In a study of 27 South and Southeast Asian cities, the incidence of diarrhea was higher in cities with a larger share of liquid and solid human waste in untreated wastewater bodies (Asian Development Bank 2009). Release of untreated wastewater can also increase nutrient load to natural bodies, leading to de-oxygenated dead zones in some places. As of 2010, around 245,500 sq. km. of the world’s marine ecosystems are already affected (UNEP 2010).
The habit of finger-licking: getting a solution out of the pandemic
Published in Journal of Community Hospital Internal Medicine Perspectives, 2021
Michael Boulis, Christine Bulot
The aftereffects of finger-licking embroil persons having this habit along with individuals surrounding them (Figure 1). The habit of finger-licking can deter the surrounding people. The author of a correspondent titled ‘The Shopman’s Finger Lick’ described how he walked out of a shop leaving the goods on the counter because of the shopman’s finger-licking habit [7]. This habit can be a source of infection to the individual having the habit and the surrounding people. The saliva involved in the habit of finger-licking may contain pathogens that can be transmitted via fomites, which are inanimate objects. Paper is an example of a fomite that is commonly involved in the habit of finger-licking when turning pages or counting bills. Studies have shown that both bacterial and viral pathogens can survive on paper [8,9]. Such pathogens can be transmitted to others either directly through surface-to-mouth contact or indirectly through fingers’ contamination and subsequent hand-to-mouth, hand-to-eye, or hand-to-nose contact [10]. Furthermore, studies have shown a significant association between the finger-licking habit and serum levels of noxious compounds specifically polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), flame retardants used in an array of products [11,12]. The inimical effects of PBDEs are many and include thyroid along with other endocrine system disruptions, neurotoxicity, infertility, transfer through the placenta, and fetal exposure [12].
The Immunologic Profiles of Kawasaki Disease Triggered by Mycoplasma pneumoniae Infection
Published in Fetal and Pediatric Pathology, 2023
Hong-bo Hu, Xiao-peng Shang, Jian-gang Wu, Ya-ling Cai
Although KD and HSP are both diseases characterized by vasculitis, in the present study, significant differences were observed in the indicators of the complement system, cellular immunity, and humoral immunity between the two groups. In the MP-KD group, the levels of C3 and C4 and the ratio of CD4/CD8 were higher than those in the MP-HSP group, while the levels of IgA and CD56 were lower than those in the MP-HSP group. HSP patients had lower levels of CD4+T cells and a lower CD4/CD8 ratio, while having higher levels of CD8+T lymphocytes [27,28]. By encouraging the release of other cytokines and chemokines, the TNF-α secreted by activated CD8+ T cells can cause tissue damage, induce mesangial and endothelial cell mitosis, and cause vascular inflammation in conjunction with IgA [29–32]. According to Jiang et al., CD8+ T cells are significantly elevated in the acute phase of MP infection, whereas increased specific CD4+ T cells in MP infection was strongly associated with the development of interstitial pneumonia [33,34]. The preceding findings have confirmed that, despite being infected with the same pathogen, patients may exhibit diverse clinical manifestations and symptoms due to various induction mechanisms and immune response patterns.
Human oncogenic viruses: an overview of protein biomarkers in viral cancers and their potential use in clinics
Published in Expert Review of Anticancer Therapy, 2022
When it comes to preventing infections or pathogens, the first thing that comes to mind for many of us is vaccination. Today, the FDA-approved vaccines Engerix-B, Heplisav-B, and Recombivax HB are used to prevent HBV infection in people of all ages. In addition, the vaccines Gardasil, Gardasil9, and Cervarix have been approved by the FDA for the prevention of HPV infections. Approximately 70% of women have received at least one dose of the vaccine, although this prevalence has declined in young women since 2006. Although vaccines have helped us combat a variety of infectious diseases for many years, we should not forget that developing and marketing a vaccine is much more difficult than we think today. To develop an effective vaccine, first, the vaccine must be tested in large cohorts to verify its efficacy and safety; second, the disease mechanism should be known in all aspects to avoid side effects; and third, the epidemiology of the disease should be predictable. In addition, the development of a new vaccine is a laborious and slow process and requires a lot of financial support, which is not known whether it will be efficient. Faced with these challenges, vaccine development today takes a back seat. Thanks to biomarkers, they can easily overcome these obstacles. Biomarkers can be the first step in discovering effective and safe prevention strategies for virus-related diseases, including viral cancers. In addition, biomarkers can be used clinically for early diagnosis, prognosis, and appropriate or complementary therapies. They may also help improve vaccine development and reduce the incidence of viral cancer.
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