Causality and induction
R. Paul Thompson, Ross E.G. Upshur in Philosophy of Medicine, 2017
With attention on the purposes of seeking and employing causes in medicine (explanation, prediction and intervention), the complexity and variability of causes comes into sharper focus. The specification of a cause runs the gambit from all antecedent factors to a single factor. The “complete” specification of a cause always requires a statement of every condition of the world at the moment before the effect but this requirement would be debilitating – indeed, unachievable. Ideally, a single event can be isolated as the “relevant” cause. The pneumococcal bacterium as the cause of bacterial pneumonia is an example. The assumption is that all the other “background” factors are either non-significant or remain constant. Hence, if this causal factor can be eliminated, the disease can be cured.
Respiratory Diseases
Amy J. Litterini, Christopher M. Wilson in Physical Activity and Rehabilitation in Life-threatening Illness, 2021
Respiratory infections are a major public health concern globally. Pneumonia, a viral, bacterial, or fungal infection of the alveoli, can occur in one or both lungs. Most frequently diagnosed on a chest radiograph, pneumonia is usually defined as community-acquired or hospital-acquired. The most common form of bacterial pneumonia is associated with streptococcus (pneumococcus), while many types of viral pneumonia are associated with pathogens such as influenza and coronavirus. Those at a higher risk for acquiring bacterial pneumonia include older individuals, those recovering from injury, illness, or surgery, those with concurrent medical conditions, and/or individuals with tobacco use disorder. Those with viral pneumonia are at risk of developing bacterial pneumonia. A rarer form of pneumonia, chemical pneumonia, is associated with lung inflammation caused by exposure to liquids, gases, or small particles.
Case 54: Recurrent Lower Respiratory Infections Following a Renal Transplant
Layne Kerry, Janice Rymer in 100 Diagnostic Dilemmas in Clinical Medicine, 2017
His symptoms are primarily respiratory in nature, although his chest was clear on examination. A viral pneumonia may have developed. A bacterial pneumonia due to typical pathogens, such as Streptococcus pneumoniae or Staphylococcus aureus, or atypical pathogens such as Mycoplasma pneumoniae or Legionella pneumophila may also be present. As the patient is immunocompromised, Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PCP) should be suspected. Pulmonary tuberculosis is also relatively common among people with immunosuppression and would explain the patient's symptoms of weight loss and malaise.
Protective effects of Re-yan-ning mixture on Streptococcus pneumonia in rats based on network pharmacology
Published in Pharmaceutical Biology, 2021
Lizhu Han, Jing Kou, Kunxia Hu, Yunlan Wang, Zhishu Tang, Zhisheng Wu, Xiao Song
Pneumonia refers to inflammation of the terminal airway, alveolar and interstitial lung, and can be caused by pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, atypical pathogens and the inhalation of foreign bodies (Ho and Ip 2019; McLaughlin et al. 2019). Bacterial pneumonia is the most common form of pneumonia and one of the most common infectious diseases (Voiriot et al. 2019). Before the use of antibiotics, bacterial pneumonia posed a great threat to the health of children and the elderly. However, in recent years, despite the use of powerful antibiotics and effective vaccines, the overall mortality rate of pneumonia has not changed. Streptococcus pneumonia is a Gram positive bacterium, usually located in the nasopharyngeal cavity of healthy people. It may cause disease when immunity declines, especially in children <5 years old and in those ≥60 years (Poole and Clark 2020). Streptococcus pneumonia is the main cause of bacterial pneumonia and meningitis worldwide, which can lead to bacteraemia, acute otitis media, bronchitis and other diseases. Pneumococcal infection can be treated with penicillin, cephalosporin, etc. Chinese Streptococcus pneumonia is highly resistant to macrolide antibacterial drugs. Clinical data from Wuhan Hospital in China showed that the resistance rate of Streptococcus pneumonia to clindamycin was 98.28%, and the resistance rate to erythromycin was 97.41% (Jing et al. 2019). It has high sensitivity to ertapenem, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, ofloxacin, telithromycin and cefotaxime (Xuan et al. 2019).
Lactic acid bacteria: prominent player in the fight against human pathogens
Published in Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy, 2022
Ujjayni B. Saha, Sunil D. Saroj
Lactobacilli delivery resulted in a 2 log reduction in P.aeruginosa (PA) lung burdens 4 hours after infection, which was linked to lower IL-6 and TNF- production in BALs. By controlling cytokine release, LB strengthened the immune system, resulting in higher PA clearance [125]. (Table 3). Bacterial pneumonia is a serious condition that can be deadly. It can induce sepsis and is difficult to treat when caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria. The Gram-negative bacteria Klebsiella pneumoniae is the most common cause of nosocomial infections. The antagonist immunomodulatory effects of L. plantarum CIRM653 and K. pneumoniae have been documented in vivo in one study. Lactobacilli may have a distal influence on infections through modulating the immune system in the host, according to their research [126] (Table 3).
Progress in mucosal immunization for protection against pneumococcal pneumonia
Published in Expert Review of Vaccines, 2019
Viviane Maimoni Gonçalves, Kan Kaneko, Carla Solórzano, Ronan MacLoughlin, Imran Saleem, Eliane Namie Miyaji
Pneumonia can be caused by viruses, bacteria, or fungi [56]. Recent data have demonstrated that the etiology of pneumonia is not yet well established and studies are strongly influenced by factors as high sensitivity and low specificity of case definition, prior antibiotic treatment, access to healthcare, specimens collected from sites distant from the lungs, presence of multiple potential pathogens in the specimens collected, underrepresentation of fatal cases and bias related to the identification methods [57]. Nonetheless, S. pneumoniae is recognized as the main cause of bacterial pneumonia, followed by H. influenzae, while respiratory syncytial virus is the most common viral cause of pneumonia [3]. Also, relationship between previous virus infection and predisposition to bacterial infection has been reported [58]. Vaccine probe studies have contributed to point out pneumococcus and H. influenzae as important causes of pneumonia [57].
Related Knowledge Centers
- Bacillus Anthracis
- Bacteria
- Klebsiella Pneumoniae
- Pneumonia
- Staphylococcus Aureus
- Streptococcus Pneumoniae
- Pathogenic Bacteria
- Gram-Positive Bacteria
- Gram-Negative Bacteria
- Haemophilus Influenzae