Infectious Diseases
Lyle D. Broemeling in Bayesian Analysis of Infectious Diseases, 2021
A person becomes artificially immune to some diseases by way of vaccination, which contain antigens that stimulate the yield of antibodies. Immunity to smallpox, polio, measles, rabies, and other viruses is induced by injecting a person with living by diminished disease organisms. A vaccine containing only dead organisms protects one against typhoid fever, whooping cough, measles, and polio. Vaccines containing toxins or poisons are used to prevent diphtheria and tetanus. When injected into a person, the production of antibodies is induced. The antibodies are called antitoxins. Some body disorders are caused by too much or has too little hormone yield. Hormones are body chemicals that affect many important biochemical reactions. When a person has a deficiency in hormones, the ailment is easy to treat with hormone shots.
Biofilm Persisters
Chaminda Jayampath Seneviratne in Microbial Biofilms, 2017
In an isogeneic microbial population, antimicrobials mainly target actively growing cells, thereby allowing non-growing cells to persist. Hence, it is generally assumed that growth arrest and dormancy account for microbial persistence [29]. The first direct evidence for this hypothesis comes from the observation of E. coli persisters that comprise non-growing or slowly growing cells, linking persistence to phenotypic switch from normal growth to reduced growth [13]. The phenomenon is viewed as a bet-hedging strategy, whereby persisters enter into a dormant state characterised by decreased cellular activities to withstand antimicrobial treatment. Gene loci known as toxin–antitoxin (TA) modules play a critical role in the induction of dormancy and persistence [30–34]. TA systems typically comprise two components: a stable toxin that inhibits cell growth by interfering with essential cellular processes (e.g. DNA replication and protein translation), and a labile antitoxin that regulates toxin activity [35]. Under normal growth conditions, an antitoxin neutralises the cognate toxin so that cell growth is unaffected. However, in stress circumstances, antitoxins are selectively degraded, which leaves active toxins to perform their functions.
Medical Management of Chemical Warfare Agents
Brian J. Lukey, James A. Romano, Salem Harry in Chemical Warfare Agents, 2019
Even though this textbook is about chemical warfare agents, we would be remiss if we did not mention three technically biological agents that produce toxins with significant effects. The first of these is botulinum toxin, produced from the anaerobe Clostridium botulinum. It is one of the most toxic substances, coming in at more than 5000 times more toxic than nerve agents. Although you can have a primary infection causing symptoms, as in infants and ingestion of honey, usually toxicity is from ingestion of the toxin from spoiled food products. It permanently blocks the release of AChE at the nerve endings. Symptoms start with drying of oral secretions. There is then a bilateral progressive bulbar palsy and descending muscular weakness. The corresponding symptoms include oropharyngeal signs of dysarthria and dysphagia, ocular weakness with diplopia and ptosis, and progressive muscle weakness that involves respiratory effort. There is an antitoxin available by contacting your local Department of Health, who then contacts the Centers for Disease Control (CDC). This toxin should also be considered when entertaining the thought that a nerve agent may be involved.
Early recovery of botulism: one decade of experience
Published in Clinical Toxicology, 2021
Firouze Hatami, Shervin Shokouhi, Masoud Mardani, Minoush Shabani, Latif Gachkar, Ilad Alavi Darazam
Throughout the world, different formulation of antitoxin are available. In the EU trivalent antitoxin and heptavalent antitoxin are available. In March 2018, the European Association of Poison Center and Clinical Toxicology (EAPCCT) collected antitoxin availability data in poison centers/poisoning treating facilities (PCs) in different countries, trivalent equine antitoxin (A, B, E) was available in the EU, and the administration doses, formulation and total amount of antitoxin (IU) were varied in countries. In Poland, the recommended dosage of trivalent antitoxin (each vial 10 mL contains 5000 Units (U) serotype A, 5000 U serotype B, and 1000 U serotype E) was 1–5 vial. In Germany, the recommended dosage of trivalent antitoxin (each bottle 250 mL contains 187,500 U serotype A, 125,000 U serotype B, and 12,500 U serotype E) was two bottles [9,32].
Application of proteomics in studying bacterial persistence
Published in Expert Review of Proteomics, 2019
Jordy Evan Sulaiman, Henry Lam
The toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems, which constitute a maintenance mechanism in bacteria, are perceived to be the key players of the formation of persisters [30]. It consists of a stable toxin that targets essential cellular processes and an unstable antitoxin which prevents the toxin protein from functioning [31]. So far, there are two types of TA modules related to persistence that has been widely discussed, classified based on the antitoxin’s mechanism of action. In type I TA modules, the antitoxin counteracted the toxin actions as antisense RNAs, and most of the toxin’s in type I TA modules are membrane-associated peptides that form pores in the cell membrane to decrease ATP synthesis. Examples of these pore-forming peptides are Hok [32] and TisB toxins [33]. Besides forming pores, other type I toxins act by inducing nucleoid condensation (e.g. DinQ [34] and LdrD toxins [35]). Unlike type I antitoxins, type II antitoxins are proteins that inactivate the toxin by forming an inactive protein complex through direct protein–protein interaction. Type II toxins function by inhibiting replication or translation, usually by cleaving mRNA (RelE, MqsR, MazF toxins) and inactivating ribosome elongation factors (Doc toxin) [36–38]. Certain environmental cues such as antibiotic treatment, phagocytosis by immune cells, or biofilm formation will trigger a cascade of activation and inhibition that leads to the activation of the TA modules [20]. The increase in toxin level inside the cells will interfere with essential cellular processes and inhibit their growth, thus leading to the formation of persisters.
A combined DTaP-IPV vaccine (Tetraxim®/Tetravac®) used as school-entry booster: a review of more than 20 years of clinical and post-marketing experience
Published in Expert Review of Vaccines, 2022
Catherine Huoi, Juan Vargas-Zambrano, Denis Macina, Emmanuel Vidor
Tetanus is a non-communicable disease with no natural immunity, caused by Clostridium tetani spores, and cannot be eliminated or eradicated [17,18]. Prevention through vaccination is the best option against this non-eradicable disease [18]. After the third primary immunization dose, each additional dose increases antitoxin antibody levels and prolongs the duration of immunity [18]. A school-entry booster is needed to compensate for waning of immunity induced by primary vaccination, and provides protection throughout adolescence [19].
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