Health promotion, disease outbreaks and health emergencies
Glenn Laverack in Health Promotion in Disease Outbreaks and Health Emergencies, 2017
Endemic refers to the usual prevalence of a disease in a population within a geographic area. An outbreak refers to an increase, often sudden, in the number of cases of a disease above the endemic level in the population. An outbreak can occur within a restricted geographic area or it may extend over a much broader area for a prolonged period. A single case of a disease not normally present in the population can also constitute an outbreak, for example, as for the poliovirus, and must be reported and investigated. A disease outbreak may result from a recent increase in the amount or virulence of the disease, a recent introduction of the disease into a setting where it has not been before, an enhanced mode of transmission so that more susceptible persons are exposed, a change in the susceptibility of the host response to the disease, and/or factors that increase host exposure or involve a new means of entry into the population (Kelsey et al. 1986).
COVID-19 Outbreak
Gitanjali Rahul Shinde, Asmita Balasaheb Kalamkar, Parikshit N. Mahalle, Nilanjan Dey in Data Analytics for Pandemics, 2020
Before studying the latest pandemic, it is very important to study basic terminologies associated with the pattern of disease spread. A diagrammatical overview of stages of the disease is depicted in Figure 1.1. SporadicWhen the occurrence of the disease is not regular and is infrequent, it is termed as sporadic.EndemicWhen the presence of the disease is constant in a particular geographical area, it is known as endemic. Endemic turns into a hyperendemic situation when a high level of disease occurrence is observed.EpidemicWhen there is a sudden rise in the number of patients with the same disease and within a particular area, it is termed as an epidemic. PandemicWhen epidemics affect larger geographical areas (including multiple countries and continents), it is known as a pandemic.
Assessing the health of individuals and communities: Health indicators, indexes and scales
Milos Jenicek in Foundations of Evidence-Based Medicine, 2019
A pandemic represents an unusual incidence rate of disease in a given time period, but unlimited in space. Usually if disease spreads beyond one continent, a pandemic can be considered. Influenza pandemics are a classical example of such situations. The disease becomes endemic whenever a high occurrence rate is noted without any restriction as to a precise period (e.g. from one decade to another). If several subsequent generations are affected, the disease may be considered endemic. For example, malaria is endemic (i.e. unlimited in time) in many countries with warm climates, and coronary disease and obesity are endemic in North America. Table 5.1 summarizes these three situations.
Importance of epidemiological research of monkeypox: is incidence increasing?
Published in Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy, 2020
Chikwe Ihekweazu, Adesola Yinka-Ogunleye, Swaib Lule, Abubakar Ibrahim
Experience from the Nigeria outbreak has raised the need for critical evaluation of monkeypox epidemiology. Has there been continuous undetected and unreported monkeypox transmission in Nigeria over the last 39 years? Is the waning immunity from the smallpox vaccination since the cessation of smallpox vaccination in the 1980s contributing to the current monkeypox resurgence? What is the role of human to human transmission of monkeypox? The factors driving the continued transmission of human monkeypox remain unclear. Does the endemic trend demonstrate a previously unreported, missed or misdiagnosed disease that has been endemic in the region over the past decades? Cases of human monkeypox have often been misdiagnosed as chickenpox while co-infection with monkeypox and chickenpox has also been documented [29].
Infectious diseases and immunological markers associated with patients with non-Hodgkin lymphoma treated with rituximab
Published in Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology, 2018
Kleber Jordão de Souza, Rodrigo Sala Ferro, Luiz Euribel Prestes-Carneiro, Paula Andreia Martins Carrilho, Dewton de Moraes Vasconcelos
Although tropical diseases are not restricted to tropical countries, Brazil, especially São Paulo state, faces an outbreak of dengue, zika virus, influenza virus and tuberculosis and in some regions visceral leishmaniasis is becoming endemic. In these sites, patients with primary and secondary immunodeficiency should be followed carefully, independent of their immunosuppression mechanism. For the patients in this study, hypogammaglobulinemia and decreased or absent peripheral CD-45/CD19 B cells counts were found, a pattern also found in patients with common variable immunodeficiency (CVID)5. Considering the repertoire of peripheral CD3/CD4/CD8/CD16/56+NK cells, only one patient showed decreased counts, a result also demonstrated in Japanese patients treated with RTX as adjuvant therapy to autologous BMT for NHL4. The authors suggested that hypogammaglobulinemia was induced by the decrease of IgD−/CD27+ memory B cell population, which induced impaired switching of immunoglobulin classes, similar to patients with CVID. Although IgD+/CD27− naive B cells were within normal ranges, the delayed recovery of memory B cells may influence the naive B cells to differentiate into plasma cells. Similar results were found by Irie et al.6 in a woman with persistent severe hypogammaglobulinemia after treatment with RTX.
Immunobiology and nanotherapeutics of severe acute respiratory syndrome 2 (SARS-CoV-2): a current update
Published in Infectious Diseases, 2021
Ifeanyi Elibe Mba, Hyelnaya Cletus Sharndama, Goodness Ogechi Osondu-chuka, Onyekachi Philomena Okeke
Coronaviruses have been present in humans for at least 500–800 years. They are known to take their origin in bats [56,57]. Coronaviruses have long been recognized as critical veterinary pathogens, causing respiratory and enteric diseases in mammals and birds. The first known coronavirus, the avian infectious bronchitis virus, was isolated in 1937 and was the causative agent of deadly infections in chicken. In 1965, Tyrrell and Bynoe [58] isolated the first human coronavirus from the nasal cavity and was propagated on human ciliated embryonic trachea cells in vitro. However, of the known coronavirus species, only six have been known to cause disease in humans: HCoV-229E, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-NL63, HCoV-HKU1, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV [59,60]. The first four are endemic locally; they have been associated mainly with the mild, self-limiting disease, whereas the latter two can cause severe illness. SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV are betacoronaviruses [61]. They are among the pathogens included in the World Health Organisation’s list of high-priority threats (A research and development blueprint for action to prevent epidemics) [62].
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