Metabolism of Glutamate and Glutamine in Neurons and Astrocytes in Primary Cultures
Elling Kvamme in Glutamine and Glutamate in Mammals, 1988
Pathways which potentially could be involved in either conversion of glutamate to other compounds or in formation of glutamate from its precursors are illustrated in Figure 1. Glutamate can be converted to GABA (a process occurring only in GABAergic neurons), glutamine, or α-ketoglutarate (2-oxoglutarate), a tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle constituent. The latter process can occur either as a transamination, catalyzed by aspartate aminotransferase (AAT) (Chapter 8, Volume I), or as an oxidative deamination, catalyzed by glutamate dehydrogenase (GLDH) (Chapter 6, Volume I). A distinction between these possibilities can be achieved by the use of aminooxy acetic acid (AO A A), an inhibitor of the transamination but not of the oxidative deamination. The formation of glutamine, which requires ATP, is catalyzed by glutamine synthetase (GS) (Chapter 2, Volume I), and that of GABA is catalyzed by glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) (Chapter 7, Volume I).
Metabolism, nutrition, exercise and temperature regulation
Peter Kam, Ian Power, Michael J. Cousins, Philip J. Siddal in Principles of Physiology for the Anaesthetist, 2015
The catabolism of amino acids involves oxidative deamination. The first step involves transamination where the amino group is removed, leaving a carbon moiety. The amino groups pass through several amino acids and finally form glutamate and aspartate. The glutamate is converted to ammonia by glutamate dehydrogenase. Ammonia, together with aspartate and CO2, enters the urea cycle to form urea, utilizing two ATPs (Figure 12.8).
Metabolism
Peter Kam, Ian Power, Michael J. Cousins, Philip J. Siddal in Principles of Physiology for the Anaesthetist, 2020
The catabolism of amino acids involves oxidative deamination. The first step involves transamination where the amino group is removed, leaving a carbon moiety. The amino groups pass through several amino acids and finally form glutamate and aspartate. The glutamate is converted to ammonia by glutamate dehydrogenase. Ammonia, together with aspartate and CO2, enters the urea cycle to form urea, utilizing two ATPs (Figure 65.8).
Prevalence of Acb and non-Acb complex in elderly population with urinary tract infection (UTI)
Published in Acta Clinica Belgica, 2021
Smiline Girija AS, Vijayashree Priyadharsini J, Paramasivam A
All isolates were further subjected to simplified phenotypic tests as reported earlier [18]. Growth at varying temperatures like 37°C and 44°C was done in an incubator and in a water bath, respectively, to differentiate A. baumannii from other Acinetobacter species. Haemolysis was observed on 5% sheep blood agar to confirm A. hemolyticus. Glucose oxidation/fermentation was observed in oxidative-fermentative medium [OF medium] with low concentration of peptone and single sugar glucose and gelatin liquefaction/hydrolysis in gelatin stabs [Hi Media]. Fermentation of arabinose, xylose, and rhamnose was also assessed. Oxidative deamination of phenylalanine to phenyl pyruvic acid was checked by phenyl alanine deaminase test. Carbon assimilation was assessed by detecting utilization of citrate [Simmon’s citrate agar, Hi Media], arginine hydrolysis and malonate fermentation as per standard microbiological guidelines [19]. Malonate fermentation and phenylalanine deamination was considered specifically for A. radioresistens. Citrate utilisation was assessed for A. jhonsonii. Susceptibility for penicillin [10 µg] and chloramphenicol [30 µg] was also included in the identification of Acinetobacter phenons. The results were recorded in percentage of the isolates showing positive and negative results. Routine identification tests were performed for all the other gram-negative bacteria isolated as per standard microbiological guidelines.
Prediction of novel inhibitors for Crotalus adamanteus
l -amino acid oxidase by repurposing FDA-approved drugs: a virtual screening and molecular dynamics simulation investigation
Published in Drug and Chemical Toxicology, 2021
Mostafa Khedrinia, Hassan Aryapour, Manijeh Mianabadi
Snakes venom are complex mixtures of enzymatic and non-enzymatic proteins, organic and inorganic compounds (Ramos and Selistre-De-Araujo 2006). One of these enzymes is l-amino acid oxidase (LAAO) with the systematic name of l-amino-acid: oxygen oxidoreductase (EC: 1.4.3.2), which is widely found in various organisms such as insects (Ahn et al.2000), fungus (Nuutinen et al.2012), bacteria (Geueke and Hummel 2002, Yu and Qiao 2012, Matsui et al.2014), plants (Cooper and Pinto 2005, Yang et al.2012), algae (Schriek et al.2009), mammals (Nakano and Danowski 1965, Puiffe et al.2013), and snakes (Li et al.1994, Du and Clemetson 2002, Samel et al.2006, 2008, Costa et al.2014, Izidoro et al.2014). l-Amino acid oxidase catalyzes the oxidative deamination of the l-type enantiomer of amino acids to produce ammonia and α-keto acid via an intermediate imino acid (in accordance with the following reaction) (Bordon et al.2015).
Disposition, profiling and identification of emixustat and its metabolites in humans
Published in Xenobiotica, 2018
Michael E. Fitzsimmons, Gang Sun, Vladimir Kuksa, Michael J. Reid
Hydroxylation of emixustat yielded the same cyclohexanol metabolites observed in vivo ACU-4861, ACU-4949 and ACU-4982 as well as an additional cyclohexanol metabolite, the cis-4-hydroxy, ACU-4862. Each of these cyclohexanol metabolites accounted for approximately 4% to 16% of sample radioactivity in three separate lots of human hepatocytes with an average of 25.5% of the total radioactivity for the four primary cyclohexanol metabolites after 120 min of incubation. The cyclohexanone metabolite M11 was detected in hepatocytes from all three human donors and accounted for approximately 4–20% of sample radioactivity, while another cyclohexanone metabolite M10 was detected in hepatocytes from only one of the human donors (4.4%). Oxidative deamination of emixustat yielded three of the same hydroxylated carboxylic acid metabolites that were identified in vivo: ACU-5124, ACU-5149 and ACU-5144 each accounting for approximately 4–9% of sample radioactivity after 120 min of incubation with 1 μM. The three cyclohexanol carboxylic acid metabolites accounted for an average of 14.4% of the total radioactivity after 120 min of incubation. The primary oxidative deamination metabolite, ACU-5116, was not identified in hepatocyte incubations, nor was the intermediate aldehyde, ACU-5201. No identified metabolites were evident with heat-inactivated hepatocytes.
Related Knowledge Centers
- Ammonia
- Cofactor
- Deamination
- Glutamate Dehydrogenase
- Glutamic Acid
- Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
- Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate
- Urea
- Urea Cycle
- Liver