Marine-Based Carbohydrates as a Valuable Resource for Nutraceuticals and Biotechnological Application
Se-Kwon Kim in Marine Biochemistry, 2023
It is classified on the basis of molecular size and degree of polymerization into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides (Knudsen et al., 2013). Monosaccharides are the simplest sugar and have the chemical formula (CH2O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms in a molecule (Vaclavik et al., 2008), that cannot be further hydrolyzed. The rest of the other saccharides are linked by glycosidic bonds and hydrolyzed into simpler units. For example, fructose, galactose, and glucose are the main source of energy preferentially utilized by the brain and red blood cells (Ferrier, 2014). Disaccharides comprise two monomer sugar units linked by glycosidic bonds. Sucrose, lactose, trehalose, and maltose belong to disaccharides. Oligosaccharides are composed of a few monosaccharide units (2 to 20 units) (Roberfroid and Slavin, 2000) which are soluble in 80% ethanol, but intestinal enzymes are unable to digest them. Fructo-oligosaccharides, galacto-oligosaccharides, and mannan-oligosaccharides are examples of oligosaccharides (Englyst et al., 2007). Polysaccharides belong to high-molecular-weight polymeric monosaccharide units, and the degree of polymerization ranges from 70,000 to 90,000, depending on the type of polysaccharide (BeMiller, 2018). They are neither sweet in taste nor utilized directly like other carbohydrates. They may be linear (starch, cellulose) or branched (amylopectin, glycogen), homopolysaccharides (cellulose, glycogen) or heteropolysaccharides (hyaluronic acid, arabinoxylans) (Slavin, 2012).
Gastrointestinal Disease
Praveen S. Goday, Cassandra L. S. Walia in Pediatric Nutrition for Dietitians, 2022
Lactose is a disaccharide composed of galactose and glucose, and is the main carbohydrate in milk. Lactose intolerance refers to the inability to digest lactose due to inadequate activity of the lactase enzyme, the most common form of disaccharide deficiency. Primary lactase deficiency is a common condition in which lactase activity falls after weaning and can happen at any point in childhood, adolescence, or adulthood, although it is rare under age 6 years of age. Primary lactose intolerance is highly prevalent in African-American, Native-American, and Asian populations and less common in Northern-European, certain African, and Indian populations. Secondary lactase deficiency is usually due to mucosal injury associated with disease, such as celiac disease or Crohn’s disease.
Digestive System
David Sturgeon in Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology for Healthcare Students, 2018
Carbohydrates are the most important metabolic fuel since they are broken down into monosaccharides (simple sugars) such as glucose and fructose. Around 35% of absorbed glucose is used immediately by cells whilst the rest is stored as glycogen in the liver until it is required (see Chapter 13). All carbohydrates are derived from plant sources except for lactose (milk sugar) and glycogen which is present in liver/meat. Carbohydrates are often described as either simple or complex. Simple carbohydrates are sugars whose chemical structure is composed of one or two sugars arranged in short chains (monosaccharides or disaccharides). Examples include glucose, fructose, sucrose, lactose and maltose which can be found in sugar beet, sugar cane, fruits, honey and milk. Complex carbohydrates, on the other hand, consist of a chemical structure made up of three or more sugars which are usually linked together to form a long chain (polysaccharides). Examples include starch, cellulose and dextrin which can be found in green vegetables, pasta, whole-grain bread, potatoes, corn, beans, lentils and peas. Since complex carbohydrates take longer to digest, they provide a more sustained source of energy than mono and disaccharides. However, not all polysaccharides can be digested, and cellulose, for example, passes through the human gastrointestinal tract (GIT) largely unchanged.
Dietary sugar intake and risk of Alzheimer's disease in older women
Published in Nutritional Neuroscience, 2022
Longjian Liu, Stella L. Volpe, Jennifer A Ross, Jessica A Grimm, Elisabeth J Van Bockstaele, Howard J Eisen
Findings from our study provide new evidence to the study of the sugar-AD association in women. In the stratification analysis, the sugar-AD association remained significant among those without clinically diagnosed diabetes mellitus. This finding highlights the importance of controlling excessive sugar intake among those without diabetes mellitus. It also suggests that in addition to the impact of metabolic disorders and diabetes mellitus on AD risk, the sugar-AD association may be attributable to other pathways. Of six subtypes of sugar intake, lactose intake had a stronger relationship with AD risk than the other subtypes. Lactose is a disaccharide consisting of two monomers: glucose and galactose. This stronger association between lactose and AD may be attributable to an interaction effect of these two monomers. Meanwhile, there was a tendency of increased intake of each subtype sugar to be associated with increased AD risk (assessed by their positive values of HRs for AD, see Models 3–4 of Table 4). Each subtype of sugar may share some common pathways and have their specific impacts on AD risk. Further experimental and clinical trials are needed to test the etiology for detail.
Subcutaneous immunoglobulin 16.5% for the treatment of pediatric patients with primary antibody immunodeficiency
Published in Expert Review of Clinical Immunology, 2023
Sudhir Gupta, Roger H. Kobayashi, Jiří Litzman, Laurel Cherwin, Sonja Hoeller, Huub Kreuwel
The excipient maltose is used as the stabilizer for SCIG 16.5% at a target concentration of 7.4% to achieve osmolality and assure IgG stability [57]. Maltose is a water-soluble disaccharide. Unlike sucrose, maltose is metabolized by kidney cells [71–73]. The SCIG and IVIG products stabilized with maltose are well tolerated [74]. This is believed to occur as because maltase, the enzyme responsible for catalyzing the hydrolysis of the disaccharide maltose to glucose, is present in the brush border of proximal convoluted renal tubules [74]. Nonclinical research has demonstrated that maltose is mostly metabolized with <5% excreted unchanged, unlike sucrose in which >60% may be excreted unchanged in the urine [75]. The conversion of maltose to glucose occurs intracellularly in the kidney; thus, maltose does not increase glucose levels in the blood, even in diabetic patients [76]. Falsely elevated blood glucose readings may occur during and after the infusion of SCIG 16.5% stabilized with maltose with some glucometer and test strip systems. When administering SCIG 16.5%, measure blood glucose with a glucose-specific method.
Arginine-induced metabolomic perturbation in Streptococcus mutans
Published in Journal of Oral Microbiology, 2022
Yudong Liu, Shanshan Liu, Qinghui Zhi, Peilin Zhuang, Rongxiu Zhang, Zhenzhen Zhang, Kai Zhang, Yu Sun
Sucrose has proven to be the most cariogenic carbohydrate that S. mutans can metabolize and is commonly used in S. mutans biofilm studies [36,37]. We incorporated 1% sucrose into the BHI broth to prepare S. mutans biofilms in the present study. Sucrose is a β2,1-linked disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose. It is a substrate of glucosyltransferase (GTF), which can metabolize it into glucans and fructose. Extracellular glucans contribute to EPS accumulation [38]. EPS, in turn, functions as a scaffold that helps to support biofilm formation [38]. We detected no significant differences in glucan levels when comparing untreated and arginine-treated biofilms in our metabolomics analysis, which is consistent with the observed changes in EPS levels in our CR assay. However, we did find that arginine-treated samples exhibited lower biomass than did control samples, which may be a result of changes in the relative abundance of other components of the extracellular matrix that contribute to biofilm formation, such as extracellular DNA or lipoteichoic acids [39,40].
Related Knowledge Centers
- Glycosidic Bond
- Monosaccharide
- Oligosaccharide
- Polysaccharide
- Sucrose
- Maltose
- Carbohydrate
- Sugar
- Lactose
- Carbon