The Reproductive System and Its Disorders
Walter F. Stanaszek, Mary J. Stanaszek, Robert J. Holt, Steven Strauss in Understanding Medical Terms, 2020
The external genitalia in the female, often referred to collectively as either the vulva or the pudendum, consist of several structures in the urogenital triangle of the perineum. The vaginal orifice, along with the urethra above it, opens into the vestibule (an entry, as in architecture) of the vagina. The orifice is partly closed by a thin membrane called the hymen, which is reduced to tags of tissue as sexual relations are established and children are born. At each side of the orifice are the bulbs of the vestibule, which cover the greater vestibular glands. These glands, whose ducts open at the margin of the hymen, form a mucous secretion during sexual activity to lubricate the lower end of the vagina.
Estrogen-replacement therapy: the production of medical knowledge and the emergence of policy
Ellen Lewin, Virginia Olesen in Women, Health, and Healing, 2022
In contrast to the relatively moderate position adopted in the NEJM, articles in JAMA (Lipsett 1977; Shoemaker, Forney, and MacDonald 1977; Landau 1979; Meier and Landau 1980) tended towards support of ERT. They play down, while not denying, the risks of endometrial cancer and they extol the benefits of estrogen for women's health. Meier and Landau (1980), for example, list the diseases attendant on menopause against which they claim estrogen would offer effective protection: Osteoporosis, a potential crippler, can be arrested; and further attacks prevented with estrogen therapy. Genitalia can be preserved in functional state. It is conceivable that the progression of atherosclerotic disease can be delayed.(Meier and Landau 1980: 1658) This catalogue of preventable diseases implied an obligation on the physician to prescribe estrogen, regardless of whether or not the patient experiences symptoms or whether or not she asks for therapy, and despite the risk of endometrial cancer.
Vulvar and Vaginal Trauma and Bartholin Gland Disorders
Botros Rizk, A. Mostafa Borahay, Abdel Maguid Ramzy in Clinical Diagnosis and Management of Gynecologic Emergencies, 2020
The World Health Organization defines female genital mutilation as “all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons.” It is carried out between infancy and early adolescence with an estimated 200 million girls and women being affected, mostly in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. The mutilation is divided into four categories based on the extent of injury, with type 1 involving partial or total removal of the clitoris and type 2, the most common, being clitoral removal involving the labia minora with or without the excision of the labia majora. Type 3 involves the narrowing of the vaginal opening, and type 4 includes all other unspecified injurious practices such as pricking, incising, cauterizing, and scraping the genital area. The complications arising from these procedures can be immediate, such as pain, severe bleeding, and infections, or long term, such as urinary incontinence, chronic vaginal infections, dyspareunia, psychological problems, and obstetric complications [19, 20].
TRAP Sequence in Monochorionic/Monoamniotic (MC/MA) Discordant Twins: Two Cases Treated with Fetoscopic Laser Surgery
Published in Fetal and Pediatric Pathology, 2018
Gabriele Tonni, Gianpaolo Grisolia, Paolo Zampriolo, Federico Prefumo, Anna Fichera, Paola Bonasoni, Mathilde Lefebvre, Suonavy Khung-Savatovsky, Fabien Guimiot, Jonathan Rosenblatt, Edward Araujo Júnior
X-rays of the acardiac mass showed rudimentary cranial structures, a spine with two sacral vertebrae, five lumbar vertebrae, three thoracic vertebrae, and at least three upper vertebrae with segmentation abnormalities. There were four pairs of ribs. The lower limbs had three segments: the femur measured 23 mm (compatible with a mean gestational age of 17 weeks), tibiae and fibulae had a normal appearance, the right foot presented four metatarsals and the left only three (Fig. 8(A–E)). The acardiac mass external examination revealed a thin macerated fetus that weighted 13.8 g and measured 10 cm in length; the feet measured 16 mm (mean for 14 weeks). The fetus was devoid of upper limb, but bearing a small recognizable mouth at the left part of its upper extremity (Fig. 9(A–C)). The right foot had four toes and the left three. The external genitalia were female. There was anal agenesis. At internal examination, ovaries were present without a uterus. There was an intestine loop blind at both ends measuring 3 cm in length. No brain tissue could be found. At histology, the gonads were confirmed to be ovaries (Fig. 10(A,B)). The bowel exhibited a normal architecture (Fig. 11(A,B)). At the upper portion of the body, there was a highly macerated brownish tissue (Fig. 12). The other tissues were severely macerated and specific identification was impossible.
Maintaining sexual function after pelvic floor surgery
Published in Climacteric, 2019
S. Jha
The female external genitalia consist of the labia (majora and minora), vestibule (interlabial space), and female erectile organs including the clitoris and vestibular bulbs. The clitoris comprises an outer glans, a middle corpus, and an inner crura, and the vestibular bulbs are erectile tissue located on either side of the female urethra. During sexual stimulation, the clitoris, labia minora, and vestibular bulbs become engorged. This results in increased lubrication, vaginal wall engorgement, and an increase in clitoral length and diameter. At the neurogenic level, nitric oxide, phosphodiesterase-V, and vasoactive intestinal peptide are believed to play a role in addition to the effect of the hormones estrogen and testosterone. The pelvic floor, on the other hand, forms the outlet of the bony pelvis and supports the abdominal and pelvic organs, maintains continence of urine and stool, and allows intercourse and parturition. It is formed by the levator ani muscle, urogenital diaphragm, and perineal membrane. The perineal membrane, consisting of the ischiocavernous, bulbocavernous, and superficial transverse perineal muscles, has a crucial role in sexual response.
Quantification of the Androgen and Estrogen Receptors in the Penile Tissues of Hypospadias in Comparison with Normal Children
Published in Fetal and Pediatric Pathology, 2023
Sanat Khanna, V. Shankar Raman, Sonia Badwal, K. V. Vinu Balraam
Cunha et al. is his study on spotted hyenas showed that estrogens played a crucial role in the development of male and female external genitalia especially penis and clitoris, in determining the final anatomical positioning of the urethral orifice, in defining the pliability of the urethral meatus, and finally in facilitating the epithelial-fusion events which is required for the development of the distal urethra/urogenital sinus and prepuce. This is further proven by the fact that antenatal administration of letrozole (aromatase inhibitor) gives rise to abnormal development of glans and prepuce leading to hypospadias, which also correlated with the tissue expression of AR and estrogen receptors (ER) [19–21]. This explains the important and defining role of these hormones in in-utero development of male external genitalia.
Related Knowledge Centers
- Birth
- Sexual Characteristics
- Sexual Reproduction
- Cervix
- Gamete
- Uterus
- Fallopian Tube
- Prostate
- Fertilisation
- Penis