Physiology of normal sexual function
Jacques Corcos, David Ginsberg, Gilles Karsenty in Textbook of the Neurogenic Bladder, 2015
The external genitalia of the female are collectively referred to as the vulva and include the mons veneris, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vulvovaginal glands (also called Bartholin’s glands), and the vestibule of the vagina (Figure 4.1a). The mons pubis, also called the mons veneris in females, is the soft tissue present in both sexes just above the genitals (above the vulva in females), raised above the surrounding area because of a pad of fat lying just beneath it, which protects the pubic bone. The labia majora are two prominent longitudinal cutaneous folds extend downward and backward from the mons pubis to the perineum. Each labium has two surfaces: an outer, pigmented and covered with hairs; and an inner, smooth and containing sebaceous glands, which render it moist. The labia minora are two smaller folds located medial to the labia majora and anteriorly surrounding the clitoris. In the anterior, each labium divides into two portions: the upper division passes above the clitoris, forming a fold extending beyond the clitoral glans (glans clitoridis), and named the preputium clitoridis; the lower division passes under the clitoral glans and forms the frenulum clitoridis. The labia minora surround a space, called the vestibule, into which the vagina and urethra open. These labia lack hair but have a large supply of venous sinuses, sebaceous glands, and nerves.
Women and society
Chang Amy, Caroline Squire in The Social Context of Birth, 2017
In general, the term ‘sex’ is used to refer to the chromosomal differences that underlie male and female bodies. Biologically determinist theories define what women are, or can and cannot do because of their sex (Crowley and Himmelweit 1992). Therefore, women have been represented as ‘naturally’ more caring, nurturing, less aggressive with smaller brains and ruled by hormones, which is why women tend to look after the home and family while men are more likely to be engaged in activities that need more logical brain activity (Giddens with Griffiths 2006). Such ideology pervades much of the media in contemporary society where women are viewed as passive and beautiful and men as strong, active and muscular. This serves to reinforce the heterosexist notions of femininity and masculinity and a binary divide which, in turn, supports heterosexual relations and a patriarchal society (Kent 2000). It is interesting to note that, historically, female genitalia were regarded as the same as the male except that they were located inside the body:
The immune system of the genitourinary tract
Phillip D. Smith, Richard S. Blumberg, Thomas T. MacDonald in Principles of Mucosal Immunology, 2020
The female reproductive tract has upper and lower components. The lower female reproductive tract structures (ectocervix, vagina, and vulva) enable sperm to enter the body and protect the internal genital organs from potential pathogens. From the vulva to the vagina, the epidermis transitions from keratinized to stratified, nonkeratinized squamous epithelium. The vaginal mucosa consists of three distinct layers; (1) the outer surface layer, which is lubricated by mucus produced primarily by the cervix; (2) the intermediate layer, which acts as an active site of glycogen production; and (3) the basal layer, made up of actively dividing cells. Internal reproductive structures include the endocervix, uterus, and fallopian tubes (see Figure 20.1, left). The ovary produces both gametes (ova) and sex hormones (estradiol and progesterone). The fallopian tubes attached to the upper part of the uterus provide passage for the ovum from the ovary to the uterus. Following fertilization of an egg by a sperm in the fallopian tubes, the fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where it implants into the lining of the uterine wall. Each site in the female reproductive tract functions to insure passage of sperm to the site of fertilization, permit release of menstrual flow, as well as provide a route of passage of the baby at birth.
Perceptions of Female Genitalia Following Labiaplasty
Published in The Journal of Sex Research, 2021
Kaylee Skoda, Flora E. Oswald, Lacey Shorter, Cory L. Pedersen
This “tucked-in” appearance (Schick et al., 2011), colloquially referred to as the “Barbie look” (Iglesia et al., 2013; Schick et al., 2011), is widely regarded as the labial ideal of which research participants report a shared understanding (e.g., Braun, 2019; Crouch, 2019; Gunter, 2019; Jones & Nurka, 2015). This tucked-in labial appearance predominates in media, both pornographic and non-pornographic (e.g., Braun, 2005; Gunter, 2019; Liao & Creighton, 2007; Sharp et al., 2016). Symmetrical and invisible, such ideal labia represent prepubescent youth, purity, and ultimately, desirability (Braun, 2005, 2019; Crouch, 2019; Herbenick & Schick, 2011). In contrast, protruding labia – historically associated with racial inferiority (Gilman, 1985), promiscuity, and excessive masturbation (Gilman, 1985; Solanki et al., 2010) – are often discussed as aged (Cauterucci, 2016; Mock, 2012), unhygienic (Nurka & Jones, 2013), deviant, and improper (Gunter, 2019). These discursive representations of protruding labia demonstrate an underlying stigmatization of the anatomically normal diversity of female genitalia (e.g., Braun & Kitzinger, 2001). Pubic hair trends might also impact labial ideals (Jones & Nurka, 2015); the current trend of removing pubic hair makes external genitalia more visible and protruding labia more obvious, thus increasing anatomical anxieties (e.g., Michala et al., 2011).
Genital vibration for sexual function and enhancement: a review of evidence
Published in Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 2018
Jordan E. Rullo, Tierney Lorenz, Matthew J. Ziegelmann, Laura Meihofer, Debra Herbenick, Stephanie S. Faubion
Many of the neuronal structures and pathways described above also apply to the clitoris, vulva, and vagina. Below are some important sex-based differences as they may pertain to the use of genital vibration. First, females have a greater capacity to experience more than one orgasm in a short period of time, i.e. sequential orgasm or multiple orgasm. This multiorgasmic capacity is likely to arise from a combination of physical and psychosocial features. One of these features may be the differential contributions of the autonomic nervous system in vaginal and penile arousal (Lorenz, Harte, Hamilton, & Meston, 2012; Meston, 2000; Turley & Rowland, 2013). While moderate levels of sympathetic activity (i.e. incomplete withdrawal of sympathetic tone) suppresses penile arousal (Lange, Wincze, Zwick, Feldman, & Hughes, 1981), moderate levels of sympathetic activity appear to facilitate and even increase vaginal arousal (Bradford & Meston, 2006; Brotto & Gorzalka, 2002; Elliott & O'Donohue, 1997; Hoon, Wincze, & Hoon, 1977; Lorenz et al., 2012; Meston & Gorzalka, 1995; Meston & Heiman, 1998; Meston, Gorzalka, & Wright, 1997; Palace & Gorzalka, 1990). These differential autonomic activity patterns permit considerable vasocongestion and sensitivity to be maintained in the vagina, but not the penis, following orgasm (Amberson & Hoon, 1985).
Body Movement Is Associated With Orgasm During Vaginal Intercourse in Women
Published in The Journal of Sex Research, 2019
Annette Bischof-Campbell, Peter Hilpert, Andrea Burri, Karoline Bischof
In contrast to the effect of body immobilization, body movement seems more likely to be associated with orgasms during vaginal intercourse (Chatton et al., 2005; Desjardins et al., 2010). Desjardins et al. (2010) described an arousal technique that is characterized by circling, undulating and, most notably, back-and-forth swinging movements of the pelvis and the trunk achieved through flexion and extension of the lumbar spine with increasing muscular intensity, involving psoas and pelvic floor muscles. A variety of manual, penile, or other stimulation techniques of the vulva and/or vagina may accompany the movement. Manual stimulation of the clitoris is also common with this arousal technique, but, compared to the precise rubbing of the clitoral gland in the technique described previously, it tends to be much more diverse, including larger areas of the vulva and the clitoral body (Chatton et al., 2005; Desjardins et al., 2010). The hand moves less, the body more: Stimulation may actively be supported by pelvic floor muscle contractions and pelvic movements pressing or rubbing against the hand or the penis. Moving the body during intercourse may thus facilitate a combination of external clitoral as well as internal stimulation of vaginal walls, the pelvic musculature surrounding the vagina, and internal clitoral structures (Bischof, 2012; Buisson & Jannini, 2013; Desjardins et al., 2010; Pfaus et al., 2016).
Related Knowledge Centers
- Sex Organ
- Mons Pubis
- Labia Majora
- Labia Minora
- Clitoris
- Bulb of Vestibule
- Vulval Vestibule
- Urinary Meatus
- Hymen
- Bartholin'S Gland